A key to the symbolical language of Scripture [microform] : by which numerous passages are explained and illustrated : founded on the symoblical dictionary of Daubuz, with additions from Vitringa, Ewaldus, and others

University of Chicago Library

GIVEN BY

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SYMBOLICAL LANGUAGE

OF

SCKIPTURE,

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BY WHICH NUMEROUS PASSAGES ARE

EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED.

FOUNDED ON

THE SYMBOLICAL DICTIONARY OF DAUBUZ,

WITH ADDITIONS FROM
VITRINGA, EW ALDUS, AND OTHERS.

THOMAS WEMYSS,

/

'AUTHOR OF " BIBLICAL CLEANINGS," &c.

EDINBURGH:
THOMAS CLARK, 38. GEORGE STREET;

LONDON, HAMILTON AND ADAMS.
MDCCCXXXV.

''..*:/::

^* * i

PRINTED BY NBILL & CO. OLD FISHMARKET.

PREFACE.

WHATEVER may conduce to the illustration of
the Sacred Scriptures, must be acceptable to
every well-constituted mind. How far the pre-
sent attempt is of that description, must be left
to the judgment of the reader to decide. It has
been the employment of the Author, at his lei-
sure hours, for a considerable time past ; and the
principal want he experienced, lay in the paucity
of writers who have preceded him in this course
of study. That consideration, on the other hand,
prompted him to make the present effort, hoping
it might be the means of drawing attention to the
Sacred -Writings, as the only record of the Di-
vine will, and as being still comparatively ne-
glected, even in this age of general religious pro-
fession. So much of the language of Scripture
is confessedly figurative, and so little has been

vi PREFACE.

done to illustrate the terms employed, that pri-
vate readers of the Bible are often discouraged
from the perusal of the prophetical parts, on
Account of their seeming obscurity. Commen-
tators on the whole of the Sacred Volume have
generally too much in hand, to be able to enlarge
on the interpretation of such passages ; an obser-
vation that may be confirmed by referring, among
others, to the elaborate Commentary of the late
learned and excellent Dr ADAM CLARKE, who
has devoted only a very few pages to the expla-
nation of .the symbols of Scripture, prefixed to
his notes on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah. Dr
MACKN.IQHT, in his otherwise luminous work on
the apostolic Epistles, has contented himself with
some quotations from WARBURTON, in relation
to this subject.

Though the substance of the following pages
may be found in DAUBBZ, yet the Author has
drawn largely from VITRINGA and EWALDUS,
wherever their materials seemed valuable; and
Jue has added much from various Biblical Critics
#nd Commentators, where the prophetic language
required further illustration. The remarks on
Symbols, prefixed to Mr FABER'S " Calendar of
Prophecy," unhappily did not come under the
writer's observation, till his work was too far ad-
vanced to benefit by them, otherwise the classifi-

PREFACE*' vu

cation' of Symbols there made does much credit
to the respected Author.

The origin of symbolical terms is connected iri
part with the history of hieroglyphics, and would
lead into a very wide field of inquiry. Those
who are more deeply versed hi the study of an-
tiquity: than the Author professes to be, could no
doubt throw great light on this subject. What
WARBUKTON has already accomplished in his
Divhie Legation of Moses, Dr STUKELY in his
History of Abury in Wiltshire, and other writers
of the same class, is doubtless of considerable va-
lue ; but modern discoveries, and the researches
of the learned; may still contribute much to the
elucidation of these peculiarities of composition.
The subject is intimately connected, not merely
with the study of language in general, especially
in its primeval structure and use, but with the
manners and usages of ancient nations, whether
Jewish or Heathen. Egypt appears to have been
the great source from which many of the symlxv
Heal terms are derived, as the people, or at least
the priests of that country, employed symbols in
their sacred mysteries, and perhaps also in their
national and political allusions.

That the writer has succeeded in his explana-
tion of these terms, he is very far from being
confident ; and he views the present attempt ra-

viii PREFACE.

thier as a groundwork on which others may build,
than as a finished structure in itself. Such as it
isj he submits it to the Christian public, conscious
only of \the purity of his' rmptives, arid -satisfied
with .the advantage he has himself derived from
the engagement.' He will be unfeignedly thank-
ful 'to any who may point out its defects, and
suggest to him how; they may best; be supplied,
should the work be; by public favour^ brought
to f a'se(xmd:editionC r - " ':> ; ; J o. ;'

INTRODUCTION.

SYMBOLS sire representative marks, by which out-
ward objects are made to convey certain ideas to the
mind. They had their origin in the poverty of lan-
guage, which in ancient times did not contain a suffi-
cient variety of terms to express the various concep-
tions of thought. The word Symbol is derived from
a Greek term, which denotes casting or placing things
together, with a view to comparison or to attentive
consideration. It differs from the Emblem in this,
that the resemblance conveyed by the latter, where
some corporeal object is made to stand as the figure
or picture of soine moral property, is more arbitrary,
and in some degree fanciful ; while that which is in-
tended by the symbol is converted into a fixed or
constituted sign among men. Thus, if the dove and
the bee are the emblems of meekness and industry,
the olive and laurel are the symbols of peace after
warfare, and: have been recognised as such among
barbarous as well; as enlightened nations.

The symbol also differs, from the type in this re-

A

2 INTRODUCTION.

spect, that the former represents something past or
present, while a type represents something future.
Thus, the images of the cherubim and the bread and
wine in the Eucharist were symbols, while the com-
manded sacrifice of Isaac was given for a type, and
the sacrifices under the law were types also. So far,
as Warburton remarks, symbols and types agree in
their genus, that they are equally representations, but
in their species they differ widely.

It is noway requisite, that the symbol should par-
take of the nature of the thing represented, it is enough
if there be a general resemblance in some of its pro-
perties.

Much light may be thrown on the symbolical lan-
guage of Scripture by a careful collation of the writ-
ings of the prophets with each other, for the symboli-
cal language of the prophets is almost a science in it-
self. None can fully comprehend the depth, sublimity,
and force of then* writings, who are not thoroughly
acquainted with the peculiar and appropriate imagery
they were accustomed to use. This is the main key
to many of the prophecies, and without knowing how
to apply it, the interpreter will often in vain essay to
discover their hidden treasures. (See Vanmildert's
Lectures, p. 240.)

The Author of the present work has been content
to consider symbols in the same light as emblems,
though their meaning be somewhat distinct ; his whole
.object being to throw light on some of the more ob-

INTRODUCTION. 3

scure passages of Scripture, in which the symbolical
language occurs, especially as symbols do not uni-
formly preserve the same signification, but are repre-
sentatives of different subjects, according to the di-
versity of their properties and aspects. Thus, iron
viqwed merely as a metal difficult of fusion, denotes
strength or power when applied to the disposition,
betokens stubbornness and to the soil or ground, re-
fers to its infertility, and so in numerous other cases.
Wherefore the subject to which the symbolical term
is affixed must be viewed in its connexion and imme-
diate reference before its signification can be tho-
roughly ascertained.

Nor is it less to be observed, that the same symbol
is employed to point out very different and even op-
posite persons or characters. Thus, the Serpent is ge-
nerally the symbol of Satan, but it is also represented
as the pattern of wisdom or caution ; and the Brazen
Serpent is a well-known type of Christ, being so al-
luded to by the Saviour himself. This mode of ap-
plication is to be accounted for, by considering the va-
rious properties which any creature or thing is com-
monly supposed to possess, and by selecting the evil
properties to picture out evil persons, and the good
properties the reverse. For though among Christians
the serpent and the tempter are generally identified,
yet among heathen nations that reptile has often been
viewed as the symbol of deity, and in the Egyptian
hieroglyphics as emblematic of eternity.

4 INTRODUCTION.

Thouglxthe^subject of sacred symbols has been aU
ready treated of by some, yet the number of writers
in this department of theology is hitherto compara-
tively small. The reason of this may be, that in or-
der to illustrate the symbolic language properly, a
very extensive acquaintance with ancient literature is
requisite. The subject involves . in it mythology,
hieroglyphics, oriental customs, in short, all the learn-,
ing of Egypt and the East. To such endowments the
present writer makes no pretension. It presented it-
self to him as a branch of study that might be profit-
ably occupied, as an exercise of the faculties, and as
leading to various interesting and instructive inquiries.
Had he possessed better resources, the work might
have been proportionably improved. But his prede-
cessors in this line of investigation were few ; and had
he not made a liberal, indeed an unreserved use of
Daubuz's Dictionary, his own gleanings in this field
of research must have been very scanty. The prin-
cipal writers on the subject of symbols are as follows :

Pierius in Hieroglyphica.

Pierre L'Anglois, Discours des Hieroglyphes.

Vitringa de Theologia Symbolica.

Walchii Antiquitates Symbolicae.

Honerti Institutiones Theologiae Typicae Emble-
inaticae. ;

Ewaldi Emblemata Sacra. . . .

Daubuz' Symbolical Dictionary.

Other works no doubt exist, especially in the lite-

INTRODUCTION. 5

rature of Germany, and some of them possibly supe-
rior to those just named, but they are unknown in
this country, at least the author has in vain ransacked
numerous catalogues to find them;

It is an observation of Maimonides, " That he who
would understand all that the Prophets have said,
must particularly apply himself to the study of the
parabolic, metaphorical, and enigmatical parts of
Scripture." It has evidently seemed good to the
Great Author of Revelation to clothe the mysteries
of divine doctrine and prediction under the veil of
emblems and figures, a mode which suited the genius
of the Hebrew people and the nations of the east in
general. On which account we find the books of
the Old Testament especially, filled with allegories
of various kinds. The Egyptians appear to have
been the earliest cultivators of this species of compo-
sition, and in this the Jews were rather imitators than
originals. That this was a part of the wisdom of
Egypt, in which Moses excelled, is suggested by Philo,
in his Life of Moses, by Clemens of Alexandria, in his
Stromata, and by many others. That the Chaldeans
also were addicted to the use of emblems and allego-
ries appears from some ancient writers, for whom, see
Stanley's History of Philosophy. The Syrians and
Phoenicians are affirmed to have prosecuted- the same
study, according to Jerome, Josephus, Eusebius, &c.
The whole of the Levitical service was^ as is al-
lowed by all, an adumbration of the events, the doe-

6 INTRODUCTION.

trines, or the spiritual worship of the new dispensa-
tion, consisting of various figures, so as to deserve
the name which Paul gives it, 1 Cor. ii. 7, " the wis-
dom of God in a mystery,*' or as described in Heb.
x. 1, " a shadow of good things. to come, and not the
very image of the things." Wherefore Abarbanel,
Abenezra, Maimonides, and other judicious Jewish
interpreters, have sought in the sacrifices and rites of
the Old Testament, the images of future and spiritual
things. Our Saviour and his apostles use the same
forms of speaking which the writers of the Old Tes-
tament employed; and Buxtorf and Saubert have
shewed that some of the parables which Jesus uttered,
in his addresses to the people, are to be found in the
Talmud. Paul, on the other hand, has borrowed
many of his allusions from the Pagan mysteries, the
Grecian games, the Roman customs, and the like.

The wisdom of God wonderfully appears in making
choice of this manner of revealing his will* For sym-
bols, allegories, and metaphors, greatly sharpen the
human; intellect, afford food for serious meditations,
and allure the mind to spiritual exercises. Images
thus borrowed from nature and art, from antiquity
and from periods less remote, from national customs
and religious rites, present a vast field of analogy,
leading the faculties into a habit of comparing and
examining, till every object becomes more or less
fruitful of instruction. The student being at length
convinced that all this imagery is only a vehicle for

INTRODUCTION. 7

conveying sublime and abstract truths, feels himself
divested of many prejudices, and delivered from those
false and absurd conceptions which he had previously
formed respecting the nature, perfections, and opera-
tions of the Deify. Those anthropomorphite notions
which he had before entertained, in consequence of
reading familiarly of the divine hand, and arm, and
eye of the anger and repentance of God of the cup
of his wrath of his locomotion and all those other
ideas which seem to limit ubiquity and circumscribe
infinity, as well as to impute to the All-Perfect mere
human weaknesses are laid aside as unworthy and
unsuited to the Supreme Spirit. Neither can such a
reader be deceived when he is informed of celestial
nuptials, of sitting at table with Abraham, and Isaac,
and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, so as to figure
to himself carnal delights, where only spiritual joys
are intended. An answer, too, is thus afforded to the
sneers and cavils of infidels and sciolists, who ridicule
the language of Scripture, because it employs images
drawn from common life : whereas this employment
of the symbolical and figurative style, when rightly
understood, constitutes much of the sublimity, gra-
vity, and richness of the sacred volume. Had every
thing in Scripture been drily literal and plainly didac-
tic, the Bible would have wanted half its charms.

It must, however, be owned, that here a luxuriant
and unreined imagination must have no license.
The symbols are not to be interpreted wantonly or

8 INTRODUCTION.

applied rashly ; all must be under the guidance of a
sober, chaste, and pious judgment ; afraid of giving
forth that as divine truth, which has its origin only
in human fancy i As the priest approached the altar
of old, not with a light step or giddy thoughts, but
with the awe and. solemnity which his office inspired,
so we .must investigate, the meaning of the sacred
emblems under deep impressions of the importance
of divine truth.

Nor is the subject easily exhausted. The study
of theology resolves itself into many parts, and the
subdivision of labour is as needful here as in common
sciences. What has been done for the elucidation of
the symbolic language before now, as well as what is
here attempted to be done, will still leave a vast
plain to :be traversed by others, where a harvest, ra--
ther than mere gleanings, may be gathered. A stu-
dent taking the books of Moses only ; another, the di-
dactic parts of Scripture ; a third, the prophets; a
fourth, the New Testament, would each find full and
varied employment. The union of all .their labours
would barely suffice to illustrate the mystical parts of
Revelation. .

It may be mentioned here, that the term symbol
was anciently employed for several purposes. It was
customary to call the apostles' creed a symbol, from
rcju&eAAuy, to .throw or cast together, as if the apostles
had each thrown in his article of belief to compose it,
a notion completely disproved by Lord King. The

INTRODUCTION.

term was also applied to military watchwords or signs,
by which the soldiers of an army could distinguish
each other, so that the term in that sense corresponded
to the Latin Indicium. But the most frequent appli-
cation of it was to the rites of the heathen religion*
where those who were initiated in their mysteries,
and admitted to the knowledge of their peculiar ser-
vices, which were concealed from the greatest part of
the idolatrous multitude, had certain signs or marks
called symbola delivered to them, and on declaration
of these were admitted without scruple, in any templej
to the secret worship and rites of that god whose
symbols they had received. These symbols were of
two sorts, mute or vocal, concerning which, those
who would inquire farther, may have recourse to Cle-
mens Alexandrinus, to Arnobius, to Julius Firmicus
Maternus, and other ancient writers. The last named
author acquaints us with the following symbol of
some idolaters : " That on a certain night they placed
an image upright in a bed, and then wept round about
it; which when they had sufficiently done, a light
was brought in, and then the priest anointed the
cheeks of all those who had lamented, pronouncing,
with a soft murmur, these words : ' Be confident, ye
initiated ones of the Saved God, for .there shall be
salvation to us from our labours.' -" . . .

Some singular remarks respecting symbols appear
to be contained in a work known to the learned,, but
which the. present writer has .never seen, beyond a

10 INTRODUCTION,

mere notice of its contents, namely, Dr Stukely*s
count of Abury, a temple of the Druids, in North
Wiltshire.

But by far the most ingenious account of the ori-
gin and use of Hieroglyphical Symbols is that given
by the learned and acute Bishop Warburton, in his
celebrated work, entitled, " The Divine Legation of
Moses," in which he has considered the subject at
large, and has dissipated much of the darkness that
previously rested upon it. An abstract of his rea-
soning may be seen in the Works of the Learned, for
September 1741, Article 14, and at the close of the
third volume of Dr Macknighf s Commentary on the
Apostolic Epistles. Dr Warburton observes, that
the tropical symbol sometimes assumed the form of
a riddle, which in Scripture is called a dark saying,
and he produces an example of it from Ezekiel xvii.
2, &c. which the reader will find illustrated in the
following work, under the article Eagle*

Considerable use, in the illustration of symbols,
has been made by former authors, of the works of
the Oneirocritics, or interpreters of dreams, an art
of very high antiquity, and of which Scripture carries
the practice up to the time of Joseph, who interpreted
the dream of Pharaoh. Dreams were considered as
speculative or allegorical s the first is that which re-
presents a plain and direct picture of the event pre-
dicted; the second an oblique one, or a tropical and
symbolical image of it. This latter is that kind only

INTEODUCTION. 11

which needs an interpreter. If a man dreamed of a
dragon, the oneirocrities assured Mm it signified ma-
jesty j when of a serpent, a disease ; of a viper, mo-
ney ; of cats, adultery ; of partridges, impious persons,
&c. What foundation these interpreters had for
their system it is not easy to say, but it must have
been something more than the working of each man's
private imagination, for their customers would require
a settled analogy for the basis of their decyphering,
and they would as naturally fly to some confessed
authority to support their science. This authority
is conceived to have been the symbolic hieroglyphics ;
and as the gods were believed to have been the in-
ventors of hieroglyphic learning, so it was natural to
suppose, that these gods, who in their opinion sent
dreams likewise, had employed the same manner of
expression in both revelations.

Amidst the vast number of Scripture passages no-
ticed or referred to in this work, the Author was at a
loss how to proceed. Had he simply referred to
them by chapter and verse, it is much to be feared,
through the haste or indolence of readers, that many
would have been overlooked. Had he, on the other
hand, quoted them all, it would have greatly swelled
the book. He has therefore tried to steer a middle
course, and most of those he has quoted are expressed
differently from the common version.

The references to Scripture and to profane authors
are also generally contrived so as to avoid the too

12 INTRODUCTION.

frequent introduction of Hebrew or Greek characters,
which would have rendered the work repulsive to the
English reader, as well as have increased the expense
of publication. .

SYMBOLICAL LANGUAGE

OF

SCRIPTURE.

ABYSS. Abyss literally signifies any great depth,
and generally a mass of very deep waters. Symboli-
cally, it may be understood of a hidden and confused
multitude of persons. According to the Jews, the
abyss was a place under the earth, in the most internal
parts of it, and was thought to be a great receptacle
of waters, as a reservatory to furnish all the springs
or rivers. And this opinion was held by Plato, Ho-
mer, Seneca, and others, as well as by the Egyptians.

In Gen. vii. 11, it is called the great deep, by way
of eminence ; or that vast body of waters which is
conceived to exist in the hollow sphere or womb of
earth, whence it was brought forth at the universal
deluge.

Isaiah li. 10, " Art thou not it that dried up the
sea, the waters of the great deep?" i. e. of that sea
whose waters communicated with the great deep.
This circumstance, as Parkhurst observes, greatly
heightens the miracle.

Isaiah xliv. 27- What in the Seventy is abyss, is

14 ABYSS.

in the Hebrew deep. This refers to the method by
which Cyrus took Babylon, viz. by laying the bed of
the Euphrates dry, as mentioned by Xenbphon and
others. The same event is noticed in similar terms
by Jerem. L 38, and li. 36. A parallel passage, in re-
lation to Egypt, occurs in Isaiah xix. 5, where the
exhaustion of the country and its resources by foreign
conquerors seems to be pointed out. These con-
querors were Nebuchadnezzar and the Persian kings,
whose yoke was very grievous.

Luke viii. 31, the term deep should be rendered
the abyss, as Campbell justly observes. The sea or
deep is expressed by a different word, ro ftetSog. That
the sea is not meant here is evident ; for to the sea
the demons went of themselves, when permitted, at
their own request, to enter into the swine.

Rom. x. 7> " Who shall descend into the abyss, to
bring up Christ again from the dead ? " i. e. as Camp-
bell explains it, faith does not require, for our satis-
faction, things impracticable, either to scale the hea-
vens, or to explore the profound recesses of departed
spirits. For the word abyss signifies a pit or gulf,
if not bottomless, at least of an indeterminable depth ;
and must mean here more than the grave, since no-
thing is more practicable for the living than a descent
thither. Besides, to call the grave the abyss, is en-
tirely unexampled. Let it be also observed, that it
is not said, " to bring Christ up from the grave," but
from the dead, for which end, to bring back the soul
is, in the first place, necessary. In this instance, the
term abyss corresponds to Hades, which generally de-
notes the intermediate state, place, or receptacle of
souls between death and the general resurrection.

ABYSS. 15

The Greek term a&vovos occurs in Rev. ix. 1, 2, 1 1,
and xi. 7, in xvii. 8, and xx. 1. 3, in all which places
it should be rendered, " the pit of the abyss the
angel of the abyss the key of the abyss," and so
on. Grotius on Luke viii. 31, observes, that the
abyss or bottomless pit is the same that St Peter
calls Hell or Tartarus, 2 Peter ii. 4. This prison of
Satan and his angels, is represented in Rev. ix. 1, &c.,
as being permitted to be opened, by a righteous
judgment of God, for the just punishment of apostate
churches, who would not repent of their evil works.
And as errors, delusions, and impostures, blind the
understanding, they are in the 2d verse compared to
a great smoke, which hinders the sight, proceeding
from the abyss. And truly, if interpreters are correct
in applying this prophecy to Mahomet, the rise, pro-
gress, extent, and long continuance of his imposture,
may well be compared to a darkening smoke, issuing
from the great abyss.

The confining Satan in the abyss for a thousand
years, seems to be a figurative description of the re-
straint imposed upon all powers, that might either
seduce men into error and wickedness, or persecute
men of conscience, constancy, and faithfulness. Dur-
ing such a period, religion may be expected to flourish
in purity and in peace. And this, perhaps, is the
whole amount of what so many have dreamed, in re-
lation to what is termed the Millennium.

The abyss sometimes signifies metaphorically griev-
ous afflictions or calamities, in which, as in a sea, men
seem ready to be overwhelmed. Ps. xlii. 7, and Ixxi.
20.

The pit in Ezek. xxxii. 21 and 23, means the spa-

16 ABYSS......ABADDON.

cious sepulchre, full of receptacles hewn round about
its sides, in which the dead were deposited. To this
region of the dead, the land of the living is opposed.

ABADDON OR APOLLYON. Rev. ix. 11,
" And they (the mystical locusts) had a king over
thein, who is the Angel of the Abyss, whose name in
the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greek
tongue hath his name Apollyon." .

Here the hordes of the Saracens are described as
armed locusts, under a leader called " The Extermin-
ator or Destroyer," for such is the meaning of the
term above used. And this well agrees with the pro-
phetical emblem, the distinguishing property of lo-
custs being that of desolation ; and still more with
the military character of Mahomet. and his successors
the Caliphs, who, in their wars for the propagation of
the imposture, committed the most destructive in-
roads, and reduced many nations to misery and de-
spair. The duration of these inroads and conquests
is computed from the death of Mahomet in 632, un-
til 782, in the reign of the Empress Irene, and just
before the accession of Haroun Alraschid to the cali-
phate, a term of five months or 150 days, reckoning
each day for a year. But see under Locusts.

Mede supposes, that there is an allusion in the word
" Abaddon" to the name of Obodas, the common name
of the kings of that part of Arabia, from whence Ma-
homet came, as Pharaoh was .the common name of the
kings of Egypt, and Caesar of the emperors of Rome
but the conjecture appears fanciful.

Pococke derives it from the root bad " to perish."
The Arabians call the desert Albaidas, i. e. the place
of destruction, whence Abaddon, as it were, the Angel

ABADDON ADULTERY. 17

of the Desert. And Mahomet brought the Saracens
out of this quarter, being, as Nicephorus says, " an
unknown nation, coming from an inaccessible wilder-
ness. ...

ADULTERY is used symbolically to denote Idola-
try, or any departure from the law, worship, or service
of God, which might be construed into unfaithfulness
to that covenant which God condescends to describe
as equivalent to the marriage-contract, a figure fre-
quently used to signify the relation in which he was
pleased to stand to his people, speaking of them as a
spouse, and of himself as their husband. Thus in
Jerem. iii. 8, 9 ; v. 7 > xiii. 27, and other passages.
Also in Ezek. xvi. 32 ; xxiii. 27, 43, &c.
And in Rev. ii. 22.

In Jerem. ii. 2, God reminds Israel, not of their
affection to him, for they never shewed much, as their
history testifies, but of his to them, which was on his
part perfectly gratuitous, and which led him to espouse
them ; that is, to engage in a special contract with
them to be their God, and to take them for his pecu-
liar people.

In Jerem. iii. 14, where God says, " For I am mar-
ried to you," or rather, " For I have been a husband
among you," he reminds them, that he had fulfilled
the covenant on his part, by protecting and blessing
them as he had promised. And therefore, as they
never had any reason to complain of him, he urges
them to return to their duty, and promises in that
case to be still kinder to them than before.
See also Jerem. xxxi. 32, and Heb. viii. 9.
Jerem. xiii. 27* Here Jerusalem is reproached with
having practised her idolatry in such a deliberate

B

18 ADULTERY...... AIR.

manner, as shewed it to proceed from a steady, attach-
ment, which, at the same time, she was at no pains to
disguise, having chosen the most public places for the
scene of her wickedness. i -

AIR. The air may be considered as the mansion
of evil spirits, of whom Satan is the chief. In this
view, it may denote the jurisdiction of those invisible
powers, which powers symbolically represent their
visible agents and instruments on earth.

It was the opinion of Pythagoras, as Diogenes
Laertius mentions, that " all the air was full of souls
or spirits, and that these were they who were thought
to.be demons or heroes that by -them dreams were
sent to men, &c. '. -

The Jews also believed, that from the earth to the
firmament, all things were full of these companies or
rulers, and that there was a prince over them, who
was called the Governor of the World, that is, of the
darkness of it.

Eph. vi. 12, ' The prince of the power of the air."

The power of the air, says Chandler, signifies that
government and dominion which is exercised by evil
spirits, who are supposed to have their habitation
assigned them in the air above us ; and who are re-
presented in Scripture as subject to one, who is the
head or prince over them, the author of their aposta-
cy from God, and their leader in their rebellion against
him ; called here " the prince of the power of the air,"
or of that government which is exercised in the re-
gions of the air, and amongst wicked and apostate
spirits, who. now work in or amongst the children of
disobedience, influencing them to continue in their

AIR......ALTAR. 19

idolatry arid- vices, and to refuse submission to the
Gospel of the Son of God.

Rev. ix. 2, " The sun and the air were darkened."
A dark smoke is said to issue from the pit or abyss,
so thick that it intercepted the light of the sun, and
obscured the whole air ; a just representation of great
errors, such as those of Mahomet, who is here thought
to be pointed atj darkening the understanding, ob-
scuring the truth, and attended with violence and
destruction.

Rev. xvi. 17, " The angel poured out his vial into
the air."

The pouring out the vial into the air, is a proper ex-
pression to point out the very seat and foundation of
Satan's power and authority as god of this world, and
to denote the restraining of that power, so that he shall
no longer be able to prevail, either to corrupt the truth
of Christianity, or to persecute its faithful professors.
The air, as the midst of heaven, or the middle sta-
tion between heaven and earth, may symbolically re-
present the i place where the Divine judgments are
denounced. Thus, in 1 Chron. xxi. 16, it is said,
" David saw the Angel of the Lord stand between
the earth and the heaven," when about to destroy Je-
rusalem by the pestilence. The hovering of the an-
gel shewed, that there was still time by prayer to
avert the judgment. It had not yet fallen upon the
earth, nor as yet done any execution.

ALTAR. An altar, both among the Jews and
the Heathen, was an asylum a sanctuary for such
persons as fled to it for refuge. This appears fron>
Exod^xxi. 14, 1 Kings i. 50, 1 Kings ii. 28, and other
passages.

20 ALTAR

And as to the practice of the heathen in this re-
spect, all the Greek writers are more or less copious.

See under Horns.

Heb. xiii. 13, We have ah altar," &c.

The Christian altar, i. e. the table of the Lord,
considered as furnished with the memorials of the sa-
crifice of his death, of which memorials Christians are
to partake, but of which they have no right to eat,
who serve the. tabernacle. So Farkhurst.

But Macknight explains it thus : " Here, by an
usual metonymy, the altar is put for the sacrifice, as
is plain from the Apostle's adding, of which they
have no right to eat. This is the sacrifice which
Christ offered for the sins of the world ; and the eat-
ing of it does not mean corporal eating, but the par-
taking of the pardon which Christ, by that sacrifice,
had procured for sinners."

Rev. viii. 3, " Offer it with prayers on the golden
altar."

Rev. ix. 13, " From the horns of the golden altar."

In these two passages, the scenery is taken from
the holy plaCe, where the priest used to .officiate in
the worship of the Jews ; there being, in this repre-
sentation of the heavenly presence, no veil, and so
no distinction between the holy and most holy place.

Altars were built of stones, which, in the case of
those erected to the true God, werejforbid to be hewn,
Exod. xx. 25, Josh. viii. 31, 1 Kings xviii. 31, 1 Sam.
vi. 14. The Gentiles imitated the same, as appears
from Pausanias, L vi. p. 382, where he mentions "an
altar of white stone f and Apollonius Rhodius, in
speaking of the temple of Mars, Argon, 1. ii.-

ALTAR. 21

." And all devoutly round the altar stood;

This of small stones composed, was placed before
The lofty temple's double-folding door :
Within the fane a stone of sable hue
Stood, where the Amazons their victims slew."

FAWKKS.

The tombs, says Bryant, in his Mythology, of
which frequent mention is made by the ancient writ-
ers, were in reality high altars or pillars, and not, as
has been supposed, monuments erected in honour of
the dead. Such an one the Argonauts are said to
have found in the temple of Mars, when they landed
upon the coast of Pontus. This was the express ob-
ject to. which the Amazonians paid their adoration,
as they lived in an age when statues were not known.

Altars were generally erected at the gates of the
city. See 2 Kings xxiii. 8. And we may refer to
this Acts xiv. 13, where the priest of Jupiter is said
to have brought filletted oxen to the gates, to per-
form sacrifice.

. It is observable, that P"ps in the Greek, and Ara
in the Latin, is used only of an altar erected in ho-
nour of idols ; whilst that for the service of the true
God, is constantly called jjt*ju ? ,av in Greek, and Al-
tare in Latin.

. One wooden table was wont to be placed in the
midst of every meeting-place of the primitive Chris-
tians, upon which each of them laid what he bestowed
for the use of the poor, as we are informed by Theo-
doret, lib. v. c. 18. (see Heb. xii. 16); and because
alms are noted with the name of sacrifice, that table
upon which they were laid was called by the ancient
Christians an -altar.

22 ANGEL;

ANGEL. A name, not of nature, but of office, as
Austin 1 observes. Both the Hebrew and Greek terms
signify messenger.

In the prophetic style, every thing is called an an-
gel, that notifies a message from God, or executes the
will of God. A prophetic dream is an angel. The
pillar of fire, that went before the Israelites, is called
God's angel. The winds and flames of fire are an-
gels to us, when used by God as voices to teach us,
or as rods to punish us. So that God is properly
said to reveal by his angel, what he makes known,
either by voice, by dream, by vision, or any other
manner of true prophetic revelation. Secular princes
may, in some such sense, be termed angels. See.
2 Sam.xiv. 17, 20.

The Angel of a Nation, denotes its king or ruler.

Ecclesiastical officers are named angels in the
epistles to the Seven Churches, the chief pastor of
each church being addressed by that title.

Angel, simply taken, sometimes signifies any visi-
ble agent made use of by God in bringing about the
designs of his providence.

Angel from the Altar, signifies an ecclesiastical
minister.

Angel of the Waters, Rev. xvi. 5. Rivers and
fountains of waters may not unfitly signify the origi-
nal countries or seats of empires, in distinction from
the provinces ; and the angel here denotes the minis-
ter or instrument employed in executing this judg-
ment of God upon the kingdom of -the -Beast.

Angel who had power over Fire, Rev. xiv* 18, sig- :
nifies the minister of God's vengeance having power
overjfire, which is the emblem of his wifath. So the

ANGEL. ARM. 23

priest in the ancient temple service, who -had charge
of the fire on the altar, was called the priest aver fire.
See Fire.

. Rulers have the same name given them, Rom. xiii.
6, as is given to angels in Heb. i. 14, with the neces-
sary exception of the term spirits.

The Angel of the Bottomless Pit, Rev. xi. 9-
These figurative locusts are represented as having a
king, though the natural locusts, as Agur observes
(Prov. xxx. 27), have none ; and this king is that
evil spirit, who, from the constant mischief he is do-
ing in the world, is called the Destroyer.

Four angels bound on the Euphrates, Rev. ix. 4.
See Four.

' Michael and his angels, Rev. xii. 7. This state of
the church is described under the form of a severe
contest between faithful Christians and. the abettors
of idolatry,, wickedness and error, which should ter-
minate in a complete victory over the enemies of true
religion. .

But see this text further illustrated under Seven..
.' ARM. The symbol of strength or power. .

Ps. x., 15, " Break fliou. the arm of the wicked ;'-
diminish or destroy his power.

Ezek, xxx. 21, "I have broken the arm of Pha-
roah, king of Egypt." See the same image in Jer.
xlviii. 25.

r Put to denote the infinite power of God : Ps. Ixxxix;
13, , Thou hast a mighty arm". Ps. xcviii, 1, ".His
holy arm hath gotten him the victory." Isa. liii. 1, " To
whom is the arm of the Lord revealed," -*. e. his power
in making the Gospel effectual. See John xii. 38. r

Exod. vi. 6,' " I will redeem you with a stretched-

24 ARM. ARROW.

out arm," i. e. with a power folly exerted ; and so in
other passages. The metaphor is taken from the at-
titude of warriors baring and stretching out the arm
to fight, after removing every impediment to its ac-
tion. Thus in Isa. Hi. 10, " Jehovah hath made bare
his holy arm in the sight of all the nations. 91 And it
is under the same figure, though not the same term,
that Paul, speaking of the Gospel, Rom. i. 16, says,
" It is the power of God unto salvation, to every one
that believeth*"

Isa. ix. 20, " They shall eat every one the flesh of
his own arm." Bishop Lowth has here corrected the
reading, from the Seventy and other versions, and
shewn that it should be " the flesh of his neighbour,"
similar to Jer. xix. 9 ; that is, they shall harass and
destroy one another. See his note on the place.

ARROW. The symbol of calamities or diseases
inflicted by God. Thus, Job xxxiv. 6, which our
translators have rendered, " my wound is incurable
without transgression," should be translated, " I am
desperately pierced through by arrows."

See also Job vi. 4 ; Psa. xxxviii. 2 ; Deut. xxxii.
23 : and compare Ezek. v. 1 6 ; Zech. ix. 1 4.

Ovid has this passage :

" Non mea sunt summa leviter districta sagitta
Pectora descendit vulnus ad ossa meum."

It is also applied figuratively to lightnings, which
are God's arrows. See Ps. xviii. 15 ; Ps. cxliv. 6 ;
Hab. in. 11 : and compare Wisd. v. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxii.
15.' ...

On Hab. iii. 11, Calvin says, that the arrows and
spears of. the Israelites are called those of God, under
whose auspices his people fought ; or the instruments

ARROW. 25

of destruction which God employed (Josh. x. 11),
may be metaphorically called his arrows and spears.

Sometimes arrow denotes some sudden and inevi-
table danger, as in Psa. xci. 5, " The arrow that flieth
by day."

Also any thing injurious, as a deceitful tongue,
Psa. cxxix. 4, Jer. ix. 7 ; a bitter word, Psa. Ixiv. 4 ;
a false testimony, Prov. xxv. 18.

On the other hand, it is used to signify well edu-
cated children, Psa. cxxvii. 4, 5. The gate was the
place of resort for public business and justice, under
the portico that belonged to it. Children would sup-
port a man there, in his contests and pretensions ; ac-
cording to the rendering of the Chaldee, " They shall
not be put to shame, when they contend with their
adversaries in the gate of the judgment-hall."

The term " arrow" is specially applied to the word
of God in the hands of the Messiah, Psa. xlv. 6, Isa.
xlix. 2 ; on which last passage see Bishop Lowth's
excellent note.

Ezek. xxi. 21, " To use divination, he mingled his

arrows."

Divination by arrows, was an ancient method of
presaging future events. Jerome says, the manner
was thus: They wrote on several arrows the names
of the: cities against which they intended to make
war, and then putting .them all into a quiver promis-
cuously, they caused them to be drawn out in the
manner of lots, and 'that city whose name was on the
arrow first drawn . out, was the first they assaulted.
Nebuchadnezzar is here represented as acting thus;
he comes to the head. of two roads, mingles his ar^
rows in a quiver, that he might thence divine in what

26 A11ROW......ASHES.

direction to pursue his march, he consults teraphim,
and inspects the livers of beasts, in order to deter-?
mine his resolution. See Potter's Arch. Graeca, v. 1.
1. 2. v. 16. . .- -;

Seven divining arrows were kept at the temple of
Mecca; but generally in divination, the idolatrous
Arabs made use of three only, on one of which .was
written, " My Lord hath commanded me," on another,"
^ My Lord hath forbidden me," and the third was
left blank. If the first was drawn, they, looked on it
as an approbation of the enterprise in question; if the
second, they made a contrary conclusion ; but if the
third happened to be drawn, they mixed them, and
drew over again, till a decisive answer was given by
one of the others. Sale's Koran, Prelim. Disc. p. 125.
Pococke's Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 329, is referred to by
MrLowth, as treating fully of this mode of divina-
tion. See Hosea iv. 12.

; 'Ezek. xxi. 22, " Towards his right hand fell the
divination against Jerusalem." .

Supposing the face towards the east, the southern
branch of the two roads, which was towards the right
hand, led to Jerusalem, for this city lay to the south
of Rabba. You must represent Nebuchadnezzar as
coming from Dan, and marching along the Jordan.
Here Rabba was situated at the left hand, and Jeru-
salem at the right. (Michaelis.) '

ASHES. The symbol of human frailty, Gen. xviii.
27; of deep humiliation, Esther iv. 1, Jonah iii. 6,
Matt. xi. 21, Luke x. 13, Job xlii. 6, Dan. ix. 3; a
ceremonial mode of purification, Heb. ix. 13; they
are likened to hoar-frost, Psa. clxvhV 14.
.In Ezek. xxvii. 30, we find the mourning Tynans

ASHES. 27

described as wallowing in ashes ; and we may remark,
that the Greeks had the like custom of strewing them-
selves with ashes in mourning. Thus Homer, Iliad,
18, line 22, &c. speaking of Achilles bewailing the
death of Patroclus :

" Cast on the ground, with furious hands he spread
The scorching ashes o'er his graceful head :
His purple garments, and his golden hairs,
Those he deforms with dust, and these he tears."

Laertes shews his grief in the same manner, Odyss.
24.1.315:

" Deep from his soul he sigh'd, and sorrowing spread
A cloud of ashes on his hoary head."

Compare Virgil, Mn. 10. 1. 844, and Ovid's Metam.
b. 8. 1. 528.

Isa. xliv. 20, " He feedeth on ashes." He feedeth
on that which affordeth no nourishment ; a proverbial
expression for using ineffectual means, and bestowing
labour to no purpose. In the same sense Hosea says,
ch. xii. 1, " Ephraim feedeth on wind." See Lowth,

271 IftC.

Isa. Ixi. 3, " A beautiful crown instead of ashes."
See Lowth's note. A chaplet, crown, or other orna-
ment of the head, instead of dust and ashes, which
before covered it ; and the costly ointments, used on
occasions of festivity, instead of the ensigns of sor-
row. See 2 Sam. xiv. 2, Judith x. 3.

Maximus Tyrius, referring to this custom among
the heathen, Diss. 30. p. 366, observes, " Let men la-
ment and implore ever so much, or pour ever so much
dust upon their heads, God will not grant what ought
not to be granted." . : :. ::.

28 ASHES......AX.

Job. ii. 8. " And he sat down among the ashes."
So Ulysses in Odyssey, b. 7. L 153 :

" Then to the genial earth he bow'd his face*
And humbled ia the ashes took his place."

See also H. 18. v. 26. .

Psa. cii. 9, " I have eaten bread like ashes, and
mingled my drink with weeping ;" i. e. I have eaten
the bread of humiliation, and drank the water of af-
fliction ; ashes being the emblem of the one, and tears
the consequence of the other. See Home on the
text.

AX. The symbol of the Divine judgments. Some-
times applied to a human instrument, as in Isa. x. 15,
" Shall the ax boast itself against him that heweth
therewith ?" f. e. shall the proud king .of Assyria
boast himself against God, whose instrument he is to
execute his purposes ?

Jerem. li. 20,

" O battle ax, thou shalt be my weapon of war,
And with thee will I break in pieces nations."

The army of the Medes and Persians is most pro-
bably here intended ; as elsewhere the instrument of
God's vengeance is called a sword, a rod, a scourge.
(Blayney), see also Jerem. xlvi. 22.

And by axes, which were a part of the insignia
of the Roman Magistracy, was denoted the power of
life and death, and of supreme judgment. Whence
Cicero in his Qrat.in Verr. says, " O Dii immortales,
praeclaram defensionem, mercatorem cum imperip ac
securibus, in provinciam misimus."

The most common use of the ax, as is well known,
is to cut down trees, hence the expression in Matt. iii.

AX. 29

10, and Luke iii. 9, " the ax is laid at the root of the
trees."

Silius Italicus, lib. 10, has,

" Aginihe prosternunt lucos, sonat icta bipenni
Populus alba."

See also Virgil, Mu. 6, v. 180,

" Procumbuht picese, sonat icta securibus ilex
Fraxine aeque trabes : cuneis et fissile robur
Scinditur : advolvunt ingentes montibus omos.

Hence we find such expressions as these in Isa. x. 33,

. " Behold Jehovah the Lord of hosts,

Shall lop the flourishing branch with a dreadful crash,

And the high of stature shall be cut down,

And the lofty shall be brought low ;

And he shall hew the thickets of the forest with iron,;

And Lebanon shall fall by a mighty hand."

The ax was also used as the instrument of decolla-
tion, to which there is allusion in Rev. xx. 4, " The
souls of them that were beheaded for the testimony
of Jesus," literally, " cut with an ax."

Axes were also used in war, hence Sidonius, Carm.
El. 5, v. 247,

" Excussisse citas vastum.per inane secures."

And Horace, 1. 4, Ode 4,

" Amazonia securi dextras obannet."
Also in Carm. Secul. v. 54,

" Jam man terraque manu potentem
Medus, Albanasque timet secures."

And Virgil, Mn. 2. v. 480,

" Ipse inter primes correpta dura bipenni
Limina perrumpit, postesque a cardine vellit."

Axes were used in sacrificial rites ; hence Virgil,

" Quales mugitus fugit cumsaucius aras .
Taurus et incertam excussit cervice securim."

30 AX

And Ovid. lib. 12, Metam. -

" Candida tauri

Rumpere sacrifica molitur colla securi.'*

This sacrificial ax was called the ax of the Hiero-
phant. There are various coins in which these axes
appear.

The ax is kid at the root of the trees." That
trees are a general symbol of men, is well known.
See under Forest and Tree, See also Ezek. xxxi. 3 ;
Dan. iv. 7, 8 ; Matt. vii. 19, and xii. 33 ; Ps. i. 3 ;
Zech. xi. 1, 2. What John Baptist, therefore, refers
to, is probably the excision of the Jewish nation.
The tree of the Jewish commonwealth was to be root-
ed up by the ax of the Divine Judgment, and they were
to remain, for many days, without a king, without a
priest, without an ephod, and without sacrifices. How
thoroughly this was done, Josephus tells us, b. 7, de
Bello Jud. c. 1, " It was miserable to behold that
country, formerly covered with trees and fertile plants,
now lying plain like a desert ; neither was there any
stranger, who before had seen Judea, and the beauti-
ful suburbs of Jerusalem, who, now beholding it, could
abstain from tears, and not lament so woful a change.
For this war extinguished utterly all signs of beauty ;
neither could one coming suddenly, know the place
which he well knew before." Others, however, are
disposed to interpret the passage in Matt. iii. 10, as
simply meaning the approaching Gospel season, by
the preaching of which, such methods should be taken
in the course of Divine Providence, for the subduing
and mortifying the power of sin among mankind,
which, if not properly improved, would dreadfully

AX ASS. . ol

aggravate the guilt of those still remaining in their
sins, notwithstanding their p< ssession of it*

When Paul says, Phil. j. 17> that he was set for the
defence of the Gospel, the original word is the same
with that in this passage answering to laid, viz.

JttlftMl.

ASS, an animal of a patient, laborious, and stupid
nature, the emblem of persons of a similar disposition.

Issachar is called a strong ass, Gen. xlix. 14, in re-
ference to his descendants, as being a settled agricul r
tural tribe, who cultivated their own territory with
patient labour, emblematized by the ass. We rarely
read of Issachar being engaged in any war, which is
ever hostile to agriculture.

Of Jehoiakim it is said, in Jer. xxii. 19,

" With the burial of an ass shall he be buried, dragged along,
And cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem."

An event mentioned by Josephus, who says, " that
the king of Babylon advanced with an army, that Je-
hoiakim admitted him readily into Jerusalem, and
that Nebuchadnezzar, having entered the city, in-
stantly put him to' death, and cast his dead body un-
buried without the walls.

It is recorded of our blessed Lord, in Zech. ix. 9,
and quoted thence in Matt. xxi. 5, that he should be

" Humble, and sitting on an ass,
Even on a colt the foal of an ass."

As horses were used in war, Christ may be supposed,
by this action, to have shewn the humble and peace-
able nature of his kingdom.

The WILD Ass, which is more than once mention-
ed in Scripture, is a very different creature from the

32 ASS......BABYLON.

common ass in most of its qualities. Ephraim is
compared to them, in Hosea vhi. 9> meaning, that he
was untamed to the yoke, and traversed the desert as
earnestly in the pursuit of idols as the onager in quest
of his mates.

Though wild asses, says Pococke, be often found
in the desert in whole herds, yet it is usual for some
one of them to break away, and separate himself
from his company, and run alone and at random by
himself.

They are described by Jerem. xiv. 6, as snuffing
up the wind like dragons, *. e. they suck in the air for
want of water to cool then* internal heat. Lilian de-
scribes serpents as doing the same, and Varro thus
speaks of the ox,

" Et bos suspicions coelum (mirabile visu),
Naribus aerium patulis decerpsit odorem."

See more in Blayney.

Job says, ch. xxxix. 5, "who hath sent out the
wild ass free ?" It seems to have no affinity with the
common ass, but in the name, for it is beautiful, ex-
cessively swift, and wild.

BABYLON. Rev. xvi. 19 ; xvii. 5 ; xviii. 10, 21.

That Babylon in these passages is symbolically
meant of Rome, is not difficult to prove. Daubuz
has very accurately given the reasons why the latter
is so called, namely, not only on account of Rome's
being guilty of usurpation, tyranny, and idolatry, and
of persecuting the Church of God, as the literal Ba-
bylon did ; but also as being the possessor of the pre-
tended rights of Babylon, by a successive devolution
of power.

BABYLON. 33

' The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter
of tyranny and idolatry ; first by Nimrbd or Ninus,
and afterwards by Nebuchadnezzar; and therefore,
in Isa. xlvii. 12, she is accused of magical enchant-
ments from her youth or infancy, i.e. from her very
first origin as a city or nation.

This city and its whole empire were taken by the
Persians under Cyrus. The Persians were subdued
by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the
Romans ; so that Some succeeded to the power of Old
Babylon.

And it was her method to adopt the worship of the
false deities she had conquered ; so that by her own
acts she became the heiress and successor of all the
Babylonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced
into it, by the intermediate successors of Babylon,
and consequently of all the idolatry of the earth.

Rome Papal, corrupted by dressing up the idola-
try of Rome Pagan in another form, and forcing it
upon the world, became the successor of the old lite-
ral Babylon in tyranny and idolatry, and may there-
fore be properly represented and called by the name
of Babylon ; it being the usual style of the prophets
to give the name of the head or first institutor to the
successors, however different they may be in some
circumstances, as in Ezek. ch. xxxvii. the Messiah is
called David, as being successor to David; and as
the Christian Church, though chiefly composed of
Gentiles, is called, Gal. vi. 16, by the name of Israel,
as successively inheriting, in a spiritual sense, the
promises made to the literal Israel.

So Rachel, in Jerem. xxxi. 15, Matt. ii. 18, is put

for the town, or women inhabiting the town of Beth-

c

34 BABYLON.

lehem, in which was the sepulchre of the literal
Rachel, of which consequently those inhabitants we're
still in possession. . .- '

And so the Persians and Moguls call the Ottoman
Turks by the name of Roumi, Romans, because they
are in possession of the country and capital (Constan-
tinople), enjoyed by the ancient Romans. (See Her-
belot, tit. Roum^)

Farther, that Babylon is Rome, is evident from the
explanation given by the angel' in Rev. xvii. 18,
where it is expressly said to be " that great city
which ruleth over the kings of the earth ;" no other
city but Rome being in the exercise of such power
at the time when the vision was seen.

That Constantinople is not meant by Babylon -is
plain also from what Mede has stated, Worts, p. 922,
" The seven heads of the beast (says he) are by- the
angel made a double type, both of the seven hills
where the woman sitteth, and of the seven sovereign-
ties with which in a successive order the Beast should
reign. This is a pair of fetters to tie both Beast and
whore to Western Home, The seven sovereignties
must not be separated -from the seven hills, nor the
seven hills from as many sovereignties. Constanti-
nople may have as many hills, but those .hills never
had so many sovereignties. In other cities, where
the Sovereign Roman name (or but the name) hath
reigned, are neither so many hills, nor ever were
those seven succeeding sovereignties.'-

Rome or Mystic -Babylon (says the same author,
p. 484), is called the " Great City," hot from any re-
ference to its extent, but because it was the queen of
other cities.- '

BABYLON BALANCE. 35

Babylon, as mentioned by Peter L, Eph. v. 13, is
thought by some to be Rome, but by others, to be a
place of the same name in t Egypt. Baronius contra-
dicts this last assertion, by saying, there is no men-
tion of a Bishop of Babylon till 500 years after Pe-
ter's time, under Justin the younger ; which may be
true, and yet such a church might exist in .the
apostles' days.

The paraphrase bf Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, a
Catholic writer, on Rev. xvii. 5, is remarkable, as ad-
mitting Rome to be the city intended by St John.
" Babylon (says he) is meant by the name of the
Whore, and Rome by Babylon. This is the most
natural sense. We see then why St John represents
Rome under the name of Babylon, as she had all the
characters of Babylon, an empire full of idols and di-
vinations, and a persecutor of the saints, as she was."
But then the Bishop probably applied this to Rome
Pagan. Had Rome Pagan persecuted the saints as
she did, it could have excited no astonishment in the
apostle's mind ; but he might well greatly wonder, as
Lowman observes, that Rome Christian, once so fa-
mous for purity of faith, and patient suffering for the
profession of the truth, should become another Baby-
lon for idolatry and persecution. From hence Pro-
testant interpreters may with reason infer; that this
vision does not represent the persecution of Rome
Heathen, but of Rome Anti-christian.

BALANCE, the known symbol .of a strict obser-
vation of justice and fair dealing. It is thus used in
several places of Scripture, as Jobxxxi. 6 ; Ps. Ixii. 9 ;
Prov, xi. 1^ and xyi. 11. And is so explained by the

36 BALANCE.

Indian interpreter, en. xv., and by all the interpreters
in ch. ccxlii.

But balance joined with symbols denoting the sale
of corn and fruits by weight, becomes the symbol of
scarcity. Bread by weight being a curse, in Lev.
xxyi. 26, and in Ezek. iv. 16, !?

'< Moreover he said unto me: Son of Man,

Lo, I will break the staff of bread in Jerusalem ;

And they shall eat bread by weight and with care,

And they shall drink water by measure and with astonishment :

That they may want bread and water,

And be astonished one with another,

And pine away in their iniquity."

A case which Lucretius describes, b. 4, 948.

" Et quoniam non est quasi quod suffulciat artus,
Debile fit corpus, languescent omnia membra,
Brachia palpebreque cadunt, poplitesque procumbunt."

The same curse is expressed by famine, in Ezek.
v. 16, and xiv. 13. And therefore the Holy Spirit,
which in the gospel dispensation is said to be shed
richly or abundantly, Titus iii. 6 ; is said in John iii.
34, not to be given by measure. So whereas grace is
said to be given according to the measure of the gift
of Christ, Eph. iv. 7, that measure is understood to
be, " out of bis fulness, and grace upon grace," John
i. 16.

Rev. vi. 5, " He that sat upon him had a pair of
balances in his hand." Here the balance, which in
general is a representation of exact justice and right-
eous judgment, is used to weigh corn and the neces-
saries of life, in order to signify great want and scar-
city, and to threaten the world with famine.

The rider sits on a black horse, and black in an-

BALANCE. 37

cient prophecy is an emblem of affliction, and in par-
ticular of affliction caused by famine. Thus Jerem.
in Lament, v. 10, says, " Our skin was black like an
oven, because of the terrible famine," referring to the
effects of hunger in emaciating the body, and drying
the skin.

The scarcity is farther denoted by the price of a
choenix or measure of wheat, being a penny or. de-
narius, i. e. the whole wages of a man's labour for a
day (Matt. xx. 2), would only purchase so much corn
as would suffice for an usual daily allowance ; so that
all he could get must be laid out on the very neces-
saries of life.

The fulfilment of this prophecy is referred by most
commentators to the times of Septimius Severus. See
Newton, Daubuz, Lowman, and others.

To this period it is thought Tertullian refers in
his address to Scapula, when he mentions unfavour-
able harvests and heavy rains.

But Mede is of a different opinion, and refers it not
to a season of scarcity, but to the regard paid to jus-
tice and equity by Severus in the administration of
his government, that he preserved an even balance
among all, and to the supplies of corn he procured for
his subjects in seasons of famine. And the character
given of this Emperor by Aurelius Victor, Spartian,
and others, seems to warrant this opinion.

The passage referred to in the Indian Interpreter,
ch. xv, is as follows: " Si quis in somnis stateram
vel campanam quod vocant (genus est staterae) loco
quodam librari viderit, ea de persona Judicis intelli-
gat. Quod si litem habet, ac inter librandum ea vide-
rit exsequari ; jus suum obtinebit.

38 BALANCE BEAR.

" Si stateram sequam puramque videre videatur, Ju-
dicem loci justum esse cognoscat ; sin perversas frac-
tasque lances viderit, ejus loci Judicem, quo loco som-
nium vidit, injustum cogitet."

BEAR. ,Dan, vii. 5, " Another beast, a second
like to a bear."

Rev. xiii. 2, " His feet were as the feet of a bear."

The bear, according to the Persian interpreter, in
eh. cclxxiv, signifies a rich, powerful, and foolhardy
enemy. . See Prov. xvii. 12 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 8 ; Hosea

* ** f\

xm. 8.

According to Aristotle, the bear is a greedy animal
as well as silly and foolhardy. His name in Hebrew,
doub, .the grumbler, seems to be taken from his grum-
bling or. growling, especially when hungry or enraged.
So Buffon remarks, t. 8, " La voix de 1'ours est un
grondement, un gros murmure, souvent mele d'un
fremissement de dents qu'il fait surtout lorsque, on
1'irrite." Compare ISA. lix. 11.

ec We groan all of us like the bears ;
And like the doves, we make a continued moan."

This growl the Latin writers express by gemitus,
because it is a disagreeable mournful sound. So Ho-
race, Epod. 16, line 51,

*' ; Ne.c Vespertinus circumgemit Ursus ovile."
" Nor growls around the fold the evening bear."

And Ovid, Metam. b. 2, 1. 483,

" Vox iracunda, minaxque,
Plenaque tenoris rauco de gutture fertur.
Assiduoque suos gemitu testata dolores."

" From her hoarse throat proceeds a horrid voice,
And with perpetual growl attests her griefs."

JBEAR. 39

. Isa, xj, 7, ".And the cow, and the bear shall feed,"
if-et men. of ferocious dispositions shall become mild
and placable, and shall associate with those .who were
gentle and harmless. ,

Hpsea xiii. 8, " As a bear bereaved of her whelps;"
A circumstance, as Newcome observes, which adds a
particular degree of fierceness. They never venture,
says Cook in his Voyages, : vol. iii..p. 307, to fire upon
a young bear when the mother is near, for if the cub
drop, she becomes enraged to a degree little short of
madness ; and if she get sight of the enemy, will only
quit her revenge with her life.

Rev. xiii* 2, The feet .of a bear." The bear's
feet are his best arms, with which, he fights, either
striking or embracing his antagonist, to squeeze him
to death, or to trample him under foot.

. Daubuz refers this prophecy to the invasion of the
Roman Empire by the Barbarians, of whom the Scy-
thians and Germans in particular were very sottish,
ignorant, and cruel.

. Dan. vii. 5, " A second beast, like to a bear."
The bear is well known to be a rapacious animal, and
the command here given to it indicates its nature.
The three projections are called in our version ribs,
but the original word oloin seems to denote some-
thing prominent or penetrating, and hence the term
tusks is more natural and agreeable, especially as they
are placed in the mouth or jaws, 'for so Houbigant
renders it* The three tusks may refer to the three
different, points to which the Persians, denoted by the
bear, pushed their conquests. Coming from the east,
they invaded the western, southern, and northern ter-
ritories^ And thus we read in ch. viii. 4, that the

40 BEAK..,. ..BEAST.

ram pushed westward, and northward, and southward*
And that great havoc among the human race was
made by the Persians, may be learned from Jerenu
li. 56, and also from the revolt of the Hyrcanians,
and of Gobryas in the 4th book, and from other parts
of the Cyropaedia, as well as from most of the histo-
rians.

BEAST. WILD BEAST, the symbol of a tyranni-
cal usurping power or monarchy, that destroys its
neighbours or subjects, and preys upon all about it,
and persecutes the Church of God.

The four beasts in Dan. vii. 3, are explained in
verse 17? of four kings or kingdoms, as the word
king is interpreted, verse 23. '

In several other places of Scripture, wild beasts
are the symbol of tyrannical powers, as in Ezek.xxxiv,
28, and Jerem. xiu 9; where the beasts of the field
are explained, by the Targum, of the kings of the
heathen and their armies. .

Amongst profane authors, the comparison of cruel
governors to savage beasts is obvious ; and Horace
calls the Roman people a many-headed beast. Lib.
i. ep. 1, v. 76.

And as for the Oneirocritics, wild beasts are gene-
rally the symbols of enemies, whose malice and power
is to be judged of in proportion to the nature and
magnitude of the wild beasts they are represented by*

The seven heads of the beast in Rev. xvii. 9, 10,
have a twofold signification, Is^, They are seven
mountains or hills, on which the metropolis of the
beast is situated. 27, They are seven successive or-
ders or kinds of government, viz. Kings Consuls
Tribunes-r-Decemvirs Dictators Emperors The

BEAST. 41

kingdom of the Goths in Italy. Tacitus, Annals, I.
1, c. 1, expressly says, " Home was first governed by
kings, then by consuls, by dictators, by decemvirs,
by military tribunes with consular authority."

After these seven forms became extinct, the Pope-
dom appeared in all its rigour, and has continued
ever since as the eighth head of the beast ; but it is
said, verse 11, " He goeth into perdition," i.e. he
shall be utterly destroyed, nor can his fate be far dis-
tant.

The rising of a beast signifies the rise of some
new dominion or government ; the rising of a wild
beast, the rise of a tyrannical government ; and ris-
ing out of the sea, that it should owe its origin to
the commotions of the people. So waters are inter-
preted by the angel, Rev. xvii. 15. In the visions of
Daniel, the four great beasts, the symbols of the four
great monarchies, are represented rising out of the
sea in a storm. " I saw in my vision by night, and
behold, the four winds of the heaven strove upon the
great seas, and four great beasts came up from the
sea." Dan. vii. 2, 3.

Campanella de Monarch. Hispan. App. p. 509,
suggests, that the founders of the four monarchies
are called beasts, on account of the savage and cruel
measures they pursued. " Et quia omnes quatuor
monarchiarum fundatores Nimrod hunc secuti, contra
naturalem instinctum, caeteras nationes nulla justa de
causa, sed mera ambitione et regnandi cupiditate ex-
stimulati oppugnarunt, idcirco, quemadmodum qui-
dain tradunt, quatuor ilia monarchiae a Daniele pro-
pheta sub nomine ferarum bestiarum descripti fuere,
ad saevitiam et immanitatem illorum denotandum." .

42 BEAST BEE.

. May we not: add, that all earthly governments do
and will partake, of the bestial character, until they
assimilate more to. the nature and laws of Christianity,
in their abstinence from sanguinary wars, from na-
tional pride, from .the worship .of Mammon, from un-
just and partial legislation, and from every crooked
scheme of maintaining, their power and influence.

. In Dan. viii. 4, it is said of the Medo-Persian ram,
that no beasts might stand before him, meaning, that
no state or kingdom was able to resist his power.

BED. .When a person is cast into it by way of
punishment, is a bed of languishing, and. therefore, a
symbol of great tribulation, and anguish of body and
mind. -Eorj to be iormented in bed, where men seek
rest, is the highest of griefs. See Ps. xli. 3 vi. 6 ;
Job. xxxiii. 19 ; Isa. xxviii. 20.-

: ; ; BEE. . - The king of Ethiopia is termed a fly, and
the king of Assyria a. bee, probably because in pic-
ture writing they were represented by these symbols :

Thus Isaiah vii. 18,

" Jehovah shall hiss for the fly,

That is in the utmost part of the rivers of Egypt,
. And for the bee that is in the land of Assyria."

That is, the Lord shall call the Ethiopian and Assy-
rian kings to avenge his quarrel. The metaphor is
taken from the practice of those that keep bees, who
draw them out of their hives into the fields, and lead
them back again by a hiss or whistle. The same
figure is used in Ch. v. 26.

f* He will hiss every one of them from the ends of the earth, ,
And behold, with speed swiftly shall they come."

See also Deut. i. 44.; Ps.cx.viii.. 12> and. God calls

BEE. 43

the locusts his great army, Joel. ii. 25. Exod.
xxiii. 28.

The Hebrew terin for bee, deber, signifies a leader,
from the admirable order with which they conduct
their operations. And as the bees form a sort of
body politic, having a monarch and the like, this in-
sect may be used with propriety as the symbol of the
Assyrian king. See Virgil's Georgics, 1. 4, at the
beginning. And compare Homer's simile, descrip-
tive of the multitude of the Grecian forces pouring
from the ships and tents, H. ii. 1. 87.

" As from some rocky cleft the shepherd sees,
Clustering in heaps on heaps the driving bees,
Rolling and blackening, swarms succeeding swarms,
With deeper murmurs and more hoarse alarms ;
Dusky they spread, a close embodied crowd,
And o'er the vale descends the living cloud, -

' So, from the tents and ships," &c. - '

. . . . . POPE'S VERSION.

Those who have studied the Septuagint know,
that after Prov. vi. 6, where the ant is pointed out
as a pattern of foresight, that version refers also to
the bee in these words :

" Of go to the bee, and learn ivhat a worker she is,

And how neatly she makes .her comb ;

Of whose labours both kings and subjects partake for their
health.

She is loved and praised by all,

And though of a weak body, she is valued as regarding wis-
dom."

Whether this passage, which is neither in the Hebrew
nor Vulgate, was. interpolated by some transcriber,
who had a mind to add an ingenious similitude, it is
difficult to say. It is in all the editions of the Sep-
tuagint except .the Gomplutensian. There are many

44 BEE BEHIND. BELLY.

other proverbs in the Septuagint and Vulgate, as is
known to scholars, which are not in the Hebrew, and
vice versa, there are some in the Hebrew that are not
in the Septuagint,

BEHIND. According to the Greek and Roman
authors, as the back parts, accounted behind, follow
the face as leader ; so whatsoever is said to be be-
hind, is accounted as future coming after, and not as
past. ; ,

Thus in Artemidorus, 1. i. c. 51, the back signifies
the old age or future time of the party. And the
red colour on. the back of .the dragon in Homer, H.
ii. v. 308, denoted the event there signified to be fu-
ture.

So in Homer's Iliad, 1. iii. v. 109, " to see things
at once before and behind," is explained by the
Scholiast of seeing things present and future. And
so in Virgil, Mn. 1. viii. v. 657 a tergo, behind
signifies an event to come, as Servius has observed
upon the place.

The reason of this symbolical signification of the
word behind, may be perhaps more clearly given
thus : What is past is known, and therefore as pre-
sent or before. But an event to come is unknown,
unseen, and, therefore, behind and to follow after,
in order to be brought into actual existence. See
Levit.xxv. 51.

Behind, when not taken symbolically, signifies
what is past ; as in Phil. iii. 14.

BELLY. Is considered as the seat of the carnal
affections, according to the notions of the ancients, as
being that which partakes first of sensual pleasures.
, Therefore the Egyptians, in the embalming of a

BELLY BIRDS. 45

man, threw that part of the body into the river, as
the cause of all his sins, that it might, as it were*
take them away with it. See Porphyry de Abstin. 1.
iv. 10.

. The Oneirocritics understand the symbol of belly,
concerning the family and riches of a man. Ch. 79,
149, 113, 137.

But Artemidorus, speaking of that part of the hu-
man frame, observes, that if it suffers any thing, it por-
tends diseases and want. L. i. c. 45. .

The embittering of the belly, signifies all the train
of afflictions which may come upon a man, as in Jer.
iv. 19 ix. 15. And the same is fully evident from
the bitter waters of jealousy, Num. xviii. 27.

BIND. To bind is to forbid, or to restrain from
acting to loose is to permit. See Lightfoot's Hor.
Heb. on Matt. xvi. and the Scholiast upon Homer's
Biad, E. v. 385, 386, 387, where the binding of Mars
with a strong chain is explained of putting an end to
war. See Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18. Compare John
xx. 23.

BIRDS. Birds of prey signify armies who come
to prey upon a country. See Jer. xii. 9*

" As the ravenous bird Tseboa hath my heritage been to me ;
O ye ravenous birds, come ye against her round about ;
Assemble all ye beasts of the field,
Come ye to devour."

And see Blayney's note on the passage. Ezek. xxxii.4,
xxxix. 17, which last Ezekiel seems to have imi-
tated from Isa. xxxiv. 6, and see Rev. xix. 17, 18,
where we find Ezekiel's animated address to the birds
of prey, and even some of his expressions.

The reason of the metaphor is plain. As birds of

46 BIRDS BITTER.

prey feedrupon carcasses;- so those that take the goods
of other men, eat as it were their flesh ; which; in
the symbolical language, .always signifies riches or
substance, as may be seen under the word flesh. ;

BITTER. Bitterness in Exodus 1. 14; Ruth i.
20, Jer. ix. 15, is- the i symbol of; ^affliction, misery^
and servitude. And, therefore, the servitude of the
Israelites in Egypt; was typically-represented in the
celebration- of the passover, by bitter herbs.

Amos viii. 10,' r

" And I will make it as a mourning fbf an only son, 1
And the ehdthereof as a day of bitterness.?' -'

So Tibuilus, b. ii. 4, 11. :

" Nunc et amara dies,,et noctis amarior umbra est."
Habak. i. 6, ;

*' For behold,'! will raise up thet Chaldeans, .,.

, ^That, bitter and swift nation."* . _. . .. , :

Schultens observes, that the root merer in Arabic
is usually; applied to strength and courage; .

Rev. viii. 11. The " bitterness of the waters," is
referred to j the invasion of Genseric,:king of the Van-
dals, who bitterly afflicted the Romans in; ; the year
455, who also espoused the doctrines of Arms, and
during his whole reign' cruelly persecuted the ortho-
dox Christians. ; .. :-'

Acts viii. 23, " The gall of bitterness ;" -f. e. ex-
treme wickedness, a state highly offensive -.to. ^God,
and hurtful to others: : : , .

: Heb.xiii. 15,-" A root of bitterness,'* a'wickedor
scandalous person, or any dangerous sin leading, to

apostasy. --' '--' -:.-. :, - ::-:),: :--.. : .; '; ,

Aristotle, applies the term: bitter to disposition in

BITTER......BLACK. 47

his Ethics, iv. cap. 5. " Men of a bitter ^disposition
are hardly placable, and retain their anger a long
time/'- ' - ' ' ' ' " ..... ' '' "-" :

BLACK. Black, in ancient prophecy, is the
symbol of affliction, disaster, and anguish.

It is the colour of approaching death, or of the
terror which the foresight of it causes. See Virgil,
./En. 1. 9, v. 619 " atrumque timorem." It is used, in
particular, of affliction occasioned by famine. Thus
Lament, v. 10, " Our skin was black like an oven,
because of the terrible famine." See Job xxx. 30,
" My skin is black upon me, and my bones are burnt
with heat." And Jerem. xiv. 2, :.;..-

* Because of the draught Judah mourneth,
And the gates thereof languish; ""'

They are in deep mourning (lit. black) for the land.
And the cry of Jerusalem is gone up." .

See Blayney*s note. Mai. iii. 14, " and that we have
walked mournfully (lit. in black)," meaning that they
had fasted in sackcloth and ashes. Black occurs as
the symbol of fear, in Joel ii. 6,

" All faces shall gather blackness."

Jerome thus explains the passage : " Through the
greatness of their fear, their laces shall be turned like
a pot ; which being burnt with fire, makes a foul ap'-
pearance by its blackness and sootinessi," Joel seems
to point to that dark despair, or deep distress, which
the approach of the locusts should make the counte-
nance of every person contract. '

Virgil gives the epithet of black to fear, n'ot only
in the passage quoted above, but also in Georgic iv.

" Caligantem nigra formidine lucum.'*

48 BLACK.

The same poet applies it also to dying persons, to
whom every thing appears dark. Thus Camilla to
her sister Acca, when dying, Mu. xii. line 823,

" Tenebris nigrescunt omnia circum."
Hie same expression which Joel uses, is found in
Nahum ii. 10, to denote the extremity of sorrow and
pain. Thus :

w The knees smite together,
And there Is great pain in all loins,
And the faces of them all gather blacloiess."

Zechi vi. 2, 6. Here four chariots drawn by hor-
ses of different colours, represent the four great em-
pires of the world in succession, the Assyrian or
Babylonian, the Persian, Grecian, and Roman, dis-
tinguishable both by their order and attributes. The
black horses seem to denote the Persian empire,
which, by subduing the Chaldeans, and being about
to inflict a second heavy chastisement on Babylon,
quieted God's spirit with respect to Chaldea, a coun-
try always spoken of as lying to the north of the
Jews, see Blayney and Newcome.

Rev. vi. 5, " I beheld, and lo a black horse ; and
lie that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand."

This figure of a person and the balances, to weigh
corn and the other necessaries of life, signified great
want and scarcity, and threatened the world with fa-
mine, the next judgment of God to the sword. Thus
famine is expressed by the prophet Ezekiel, ch. iv.'
J6, 16. (See Balance).

Rev. vi. 12, " The sun became black as sackcloth
of hair."

. , ",

One of the figures employed to describe, as some
think, the state of the church during the last and

BLACK...;..BLOOD. 49

most severe of the persecutions under the heathen
Roman empire. ' Great public calamities are often
thus figuratively described by earthquakes, eclipses,
and the like, as if the order of Nature. were inverted.
Ezek. xxxii. 7

vt And I -will cover the heavens when I quench thee,

And I will clothe the stars thereof with black,

I will cover the sun with a cloud,

And the moon shall not give her light.

., 8. All the shining lights of the heavens I will clothe with
black over .thee, .

And will set darkness upon thy land,

Saith the Lord Jehovah."

It is well known that the destruction of kingdoms
is denoted by the strong figurative language used in
this and the foregoing verse. See Bp. Lowth on
Isaiah xiii. 10.

BLOOD. The symbol of slaughter and mortality.
Thus : Isa. xxxiv. 3,

" And their slain shall be cast out,
And from their carcasses their stink shall ascend,
Arid the; mountains shall'melt down with their blood."

Ezek. xiv. 19>

" If I send a pestilence upon that land,
And pour out my fury upon it in. blood,
: To 'cut off from it man and beast. "

Blood, says Grotius, denotes every kind of imma-
ture death.
Ezek. xxxii. 6,

" And I will water the earth with thy gore,

Thy blood shall be on the mountains,
!:,- ; Arid the streams shall be filled with thee."

Ezek. xxxix. 17>

"Ye shall eat flesh and drink blood, -.

The flesh of the mighty shall ye eat,

D

50 BLOOD.

And the blood of the princes of the earth shall ye : drink,
Of rams, and bulls, and of he-goats, .
Of bulls, all of them fallings of Bashan.
And ye shall eat fat till ye be full,
, And ye. shall drink blood till ye be drunken,
Of my sacrifice which I make for you."

This bold imagery (says Newcome) is founded on
the custom of invitations to feasts after sacrifices.
Ezekiel seems to have imitated and amplified Isaiah
xxxiv. .above quoted. Kings, princes, and tyrants,
are naturally expressed by rams, bulls, and he-goats.

Rev. xiv. 20, " And the winepress was trodden
without the city, and blood came out of the wine-
press, even to the horses' bridles, by the space of
1600 furlongs.

The great quantity of blood mentioned in the vi-
sion is a strong image representing some great slaugh-
ter Of the enemies of God and of true religion ; but
what particular judgment this prophecy describes is
not well agreed by interpreters.

See also Rev. xix. 17, 18, where the sublime au-
thor has taken his images from Ezekiel rather than
from Isaiah.

Blood is sometimes put for sanguinary purposes,
as in Isa. xxxiii. 15, " that stoppeth. his ears from
hearing of blood ; more properly, who stoppeth his
ears to the proposal of bloodshed.

Compare Prov, i. 11.

Gen. xlix. 11, "He washed his clothes in the blood
of grapes."

Here the figure is easily understood. Any thing
of a red colour may be compared to blood, as in
Deut. xxxii. 14, and Sirach 50, 17 ; and agrees well
with what Androcydes wrote to Alexander the Great

BLOOD. 51

(Pliny 14, cap. 5), " O king, when about to drink
wine, remember that you are imbibing the blood of
the earth."

1 Chron. xi. 19, " Shall I drink the blood of these
men ?' i. e. Shall I drink the water which these men
have fetched for me at the hazard of their lives ? And
he poured it out in honour of Jehovah : thereby, as
Parkhurst observes, acknowledging himself unworthy
for whom men should lay down their lives, but that
these were to be given up for Jehovah only. Is this
the idea (adds he) of our warlike Christian Kings ?

Blood is also the symbol of atonement, Matt. xxvi.
28 ; Heb. xiii. 20. The object of the effusion of
blood in sacrifices was the expiation of sin. This we
are taught by Moses in Levit. xvii. 11. " For the
life of the flesh is in the blood, and I have given it to
you upon the altar, to make an. atonement for your
souls : for it is the blood that maketh atonement for
the .soul" And the apostle says expressly, Heb. ix.
22, " And almost all things are by the law purged
with blood, and without shedding of blood is no re-
mission (of sins)." Compare Exod. xxix. 36 ; Lev.
vi, 26; 2 Chron. xxix. 24. Hence also the Jews
had this proverb, Gemar. Jom. fol. 5, " There is no
expiation except by blood." Aim cepere a la bedem.
That the Gentiles themselves believed this appears
from Virgil's words, Mn. 1. 2.

" Sanguine placastis ventos, et virgine caesa,
Cum primum Iliacas Danai veuistis ad oras,
Sanguine quaerendi reditus, animaque Ktandttm."

" With blood, O Greeks, and with a virgin slain,
-When bound for Troy, you sooth'd the winds and main,
With blood must you procure a calm return,
And a Greek victim in oblation burn."

THEOBALD'S VERSION.

52 BLOOD......BOOK.

By the blood of the Lamb of God, the faithful are
not only consecrated to his service as a peculiar peo-
ple, but are also cleansed from their sins. See Rev.
i. 5, 6, " who loved iis and washed us from our sins
by his blood, and hath constituted us kings and priests
to God, evefthis Father.** 1 'This mystery is also set
forth in Heb. ix. 13, 14^ If the blood of bulls and
goats, and the ashes of a heifer, sprinkling the un-
clean, sanctifieth to 'the purifying' of the flesh; how
much more shall the blood of Christ, who, through
the eternal Spirit, offered himself without spot to
God, purge your conscience from' dead works, to
serve the' living God ?"

BOOK. A book seen in a dream, according to
Artemidbrus, signifies ; the- life, i. e. the acts of him
that sees it. " ~:

According to the Indian interpreters, a book is
the symbol of power and digniiy. '

The Jewish kings, atthe j time they were crowned,
had the book of the law of God put into their hands.
See 2 Kings xi. 2 ; 2 Chron; xxiii. 11. And thus, in
allusion to' this custom,' to 'receive a book may be
the symbol of the inauguration of a iprince.

A book 1 or roll folded^ up, in order to be laid aside,
is the symbol of a law abrogated, or of a thing of no
farther use. '- :;c:

A book or roll, written within ; and without, or on
the backside, Rev. v. 1, may be a book containing a
long series of events ; it being not the custom of the
ancients to write on the backside of the roll, except
when the inside would not contain all their writing.
See Juvenal, Sat. : i. verse 6,

" Scriptus et in tergo, necdum finitus, Orestes."

BOOK. 53

The ancient books were rolled on .cylinders of
wood or ivory, and; usually;, the writing was only on
the inside. .-

A book sealed As ;a ; book whose contents are secret,
and have for a very long -time been so, and are not
to be published till, the seal be removed. Horace has
used this symbol, Lib. i. Ep. 20, v. 3.

To eat a book signifies to consider it carefully and
digest it well in the mind. See, Rev. x. 9. " Thy
words were found (says the prophet Jeremiah, xv. 16),
and I did eat them, and thy word was .unto me the
joy and rejoicing of mine . heart." Our blessed Sa-
viour uses the same metaphorical expression, when he
speaks of himself as "the Bread of Life," in many
passages of the sixth chapter of, John's Gospel.

The substance presented ,to the prophets, says
Seeker, which had the appearance of a roll, was ca-
pable of being eaten. Perhaps it was sweet from the
pleasure of being so honourably employed.

Book of Life," Rev. iii. 5. . .

On this passage Doddridge remarks, that the book
of life does not signify the catalogue of those whom
God. has, absolutely purposed to save, but rather the
catalogue of those who were to be considered as heirs
of the kingdom of. heaven, in consequence of their
Christian profession, .till by apostasy from it, they
throw themselves out, of that society to which they
before belonged. ..-.., : . . ; .

Vitringai remarks, that the i expression .f book of
life," alludes to the, genealogical 'tables of the Jewish
priests (see Ezra ii. 62 ; Neh. vii. 64), as the white
raiment mentioned in the same verse, i. e. in Rev. iii.

54 BOOK.

5, does to the priestly dress. See Macknight's va-
luable. note on Phil.lv. 3 ; and Lowman on Rev. iii. 5.
Home, in his excellent Introduction to the Scrip-
tures, vol. iii. p. 224, 2d Ed., refers this to the mili-
tary customs of the Romans. " The names of those
who died (says he) or were cashiered for misconduct,
were expunged from the muster-roll." To this pro-
bably Rev. iii. 5, alludes. " I will not blot his name
out of the book of life ;" and in this view the simili-
tude is very striking. But in a note in the same
page, he allows that the allusion may be drawn from
civil life. See the note itself, which is too long for
transcription. The expression, " I will not blot his
name, out," shews that this was a probationary record,
wherein men's deeds were registered, and their names
kept in or blotted out, according to their deserts in
the sight of God. See also Rev. xxii. 19 where God
threatens to take away a man's part out of the book
of life, if that man should take away from the words
of the prophecy. .

. Another thing to be remarked is that, in Rev. xiii.
8, and xvii. 8, it is called the book of \\fefrom the
foundation of the world, not the Lamb slain from
the foundation of the world, as is generally asserted.
From this it would appear, as if God had recorded in
a book at the time of the creation of all things, the
names of all the men who should ever live in the
world : and when the time of their actual existence
came, there were set down over against their names
the deeds by which they either glorified or dishonour-
ed God ; and their names are spoken of as being
retained in the book or blotted out of it according to

BOOK. 55

this procedure. Hence it is said of the general as-
sembly and church of the first born, that they are
written in heaven, Heb. xii. 23 ; and pur Lord says
to his apostles (Luke x. 20), " Rejoice rather, because
your names are written in heaven." All these things
are figurative, but, like all figures, they have their
meaning. Let no one conceive, because we call them
figurative, that we do away with their signification,
we only mean that they are not to be understood li-
terally. What they actually import is a matter for
the solemn consideration of every private Christian.

When Paul speaks of his fellow-labourers, whose
names are in the book of life (Phil. iv. 3), it may be
said, how did he know that ? The words can express
no more than his charitable belief, that being faithful
labourers, they would be rewarded with eternal life.

When Moses says (Exod. xxxii. 32), " Blot me, I
pray thee, out of thy book which thou hast written."
To understand the expression, we must advert to
the context. God had said, that if Moses would let
him alone, he would destroy Israel for their idolatry,
and make of him a great nation. But Moses, like a
true patriot and intercessor, desires that God would
spare the people and destroy him. The written book
is merely a metaphorical expression, referring to the
records kept in the courts of justice, where the deeds
of criminals are registered, and signifies no more than
the purpose pf God in reference to future events ; so
that to be cut off by an untimely death, is to be blot-
ted out of this book. Had Moses offered to forfeit
eternal life for his brethren, he would only have of-
fended God ; nor would any man be justified in mak-
ing such a proposal.

56 BOOK......BOW.

The similarity of Paulas case (Rom. ix.' 3) leads'us
to introduce it in connexion with this subject,' though
it has strictly no relation to the symbol under- consi-
deration. It would imply a contradiction, that -any
saint could wish himself to be accursed from Christ,
which in other words would be < to -say; that a man
who loved Christ was willing to become his 'enemy ;
nor can any man' be separated from Christ, unless he
be in a state of sin and unbelief, which Paul was not.

The words have suffered from mistranslation/ They
should be read thus : "'That I have great heaviness
and continual sorrow in my heart (though I myself
was once willing to have been separated from Christ),
for my brethren, my kinsmen," &c. meaning while he
was a persecutor.

The " book of remembrance," mentioned Mali iii.
16, seems to be an allusion to the records kept by
eastern kings, of the good deeds done by their sub-
jects. See Esther vi. 1* ;

" The books were opened," Rev. xx. 12, an allu-
sion to the methods of human courts of justice. See
Lowman's note on the passage.

BOW is the symbol of joy for the conquest of
enemies. Oneirc. c. 249. In P& vii. 12, it implies
victory ; signifying judgments laid up in store against
opposers. > :; .'

To the Moguls the bow was the symbol of a king
and the golden bow the badge' of royalty^ (Herbelot.
tit. Buzuk.) '- '=" '"'

An army in battle array was represented by the-
Egyptians by the hands of a man; the one hand
holding a shield, and the other ? a bow; (Hor.
Hierogl. L ii. 5.)

BOW. 57

It is probable, as Bishop ,Lowth has observed, that
the term keshet the bow, in 2 Sam. i. 18, is used as the
title of the following elegy, so named .. either in me-
mory of the destructive effect of the enemies' bows y
(see 1 Sam. xxxi. .3,) or from the bow of Jonathan
peculiarly mentioned in the elegy, itself, verse 22.

Bow is sometimes used, to denote lying, and false-
hood. See Ps. Ixiv. 4, Ps. cxx. 4, Jer. ix. 3.

It also signifies any kind of armour. The bow
and the spear are most frequently mentioned, because
the ancients used these most; Ps. xliv. 7, Ps. xlvi;
10, Zech. x, 4, Josh. xxiv. xii.

" The nations that draw the bow." (Isaiah Ixvi. 19)-

Bishop Lowth justly suspects a. corruption of the
text here. The Hebrew term for bow, keshet) is omit-
ted in one MS. and the Septuagint takes no notice of
it. The reading would then be

" To'Tarehishj Pul, Lud, and MesJwk,
Tubal and Javan, the far distant coasts,"

by Meshek, meaning the Moschi, or Muscovites, si-
tuated:between the Euxine and Caspian Seas.
Jerem. xlix. 35,

" I'will break the bow of Elam,
The principal part of their strength."

Isaiah ch. xxii. 6, says, " And Elam bare the quiver."

Strabo also;- says, that the mountainous part of Ely-

mais bred- chiefly archers.

Hoseavii.l6/<< a deceitful bow." See the same

expression in Ps; Ixxvii. 57.

Virgil has, * Perfidus ensis frangitur."

Hab. iiii 9v ' Thy bow was made bare/' z. e. drawn

out of its case. The oriental bows were wont to be

carried in a case hung to the girdle.

58 BOW......BKANCH.

J Rev. vi. 2, " And behold a white horse, and he
that sat on him had a bow," &c. a figurative reprer
sentation of the success and triumph of the Christian
religion.

The blessing of Jacob on his son Joseph, contains
a passage, which may be properly adverted to, under
this article. Gen. xlix. 23,

" Though skilful archers grieved him,
Contended with him, and harassed him,
Yet his bow retained its force, and his arms their strength,
Through the power of the mighty God of Jacob,
Through the name of the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel,
Through the God of his father, who assisted him,
Through the Omnipotent, who blessed him."

Skilful archers, lit. masters of arrows. He alludes
no doubt to the insidious and persevering hatred of
Joseph's brethren. See Geddes's version and note.

BRANCH. As trees denote great men and prin-
ces, so boughs, branches, sprouts, or plants, denote
their offspring.

In conformity to which way of speaking, Christ in
Isa. xi. 1, in respect of his human nature, is styled a
rod from the stem of Jesse, and a branch out of his
roots, that is, a prince arising from the family of
David. See farther on. :

In the dream of Clytemnestra in Sophocles' Elec-
tra, v. ivr. 18, &c. from the sceptre of Agamemnon,
fixed by himself in the gr,ound, a sprout arising,
spreading and overshadowing all his kingdom, de-
noted that a young prince of his blood should arise,
and, dispossessing the tyrant JSgisthus of his govern-
ment, should be settled in the kingdom, to govern
and protect it.

To the same purpose is the dream of Nassereddin

BRANCH. 59

Sebekteghin, cited by Herbelot, that a tree grew an r \
increased insensibly out of his hearth in the middle of
his chamber, which stretched out its branches all over
the room, and, going out at the windows, did cover
the whole house ; all which is explained of his son's
conquering the greatest part of Asia. :

So in Cassiodorus Var.l. viii. Ep. 5, J?aM0 C?er-
men is a young prince of the Balthean race.

In Homer, ao? 'Apog, a bough of Mars for a son
of Mars, often occurs, as in his catalogue of ships, 11.
ii. v. 47, 170, 211, 252, 349- And the like kind of
expression is used in Pindar, Olymp. 2 and 6, and
other Greek authors.

And so even in our English tongue, the word Imp,
which is originally Saxon, and denotes a plant, is
used to the same purposes, particularly by Fox, the
martyrologist, who calls King Edward the 6th an
imp of great hope; and by Thomas Cromwell Earl
of Essex, in his dying speech, who has the same ex-
pression concerning the same prince.

That, branch is the symbol of kings descended from
royal ancestors, as branches from the root, see Ezek.
xvii. 3, explained by verse 12 ; Dan. xi. 7- As the
symbol of posterity simply, see Job. viii. 16.

A symbol of the Messiah. Isaiah xi. 1.

4 But there shall spring forth a rod from the trunk of Jesse,
And a branch shall grow out of his roots."

The prophet, as Lowth observes, having described
the destruction of the Assyrian army, under the
image of a mighty forest, represents, by way of con-
trast, the great person who makes the subject of thli
chapter, as a slender twig, shooting out from the
trunk of an old tree cut down lopped to the/ very

60 BRANCH.

root, and decayed, which tender plant, so -weak ' in api
pearance, should nevertheless become fruitful ; and
prosper. The aged trunk,' denoting the royal house
of David, at that time in a forlorn and contemptible
condition, like a tree, of which nothing was left but a
stump under ground. '

Jerem. xxiii. 5,

" Behold the days are coining, saith Jehovah,
That I will raise up unto David a righteous' branch,
And a king shall reign and act wisely,
And shall execute judgment and justice in. the land.

.From the Babylonish captivity to the coming - of
Christ, David was without a successor of his family,
sitting upon the throne of Judah. or Israel, in any
sense whatever. And from the destruction ,of Jeru-
salem to the present time, the Jews have had neither
a king nor a regular priesthood belonging to their
nation. So that hitherto there has been a failure and
interruption, both in the royal line of David, and in
the sacerdotal one of Levi ; both having merged in
the kingdom of Christ, the son of David, which has
been established over the true Israel of God, i. e. over
all believers, whether Jews or Gentiles. Viewed in
any other light,, the -prophecy must be considered to
have failed of its accomplishment, or else an unusually
long period .has intervened, previous to its being ful-
filled. Even admitting the possibility of the restora-
tion of the families of David and Levi to their for-
mer privileges at some remote period still future, ,a
long chasm would remain, during which no king or
priest . could be said to have presided, unless the , su-r
preme authority of the Messiah be allowed to have
superseded all other.

BRANCH. 61

The concluding clause of this verse is well paral-
leled by Isaiah xxxii. i. . See also Isa. iv. 1, and corn-
pare ;ch. adv. 8, where the- same great event is 'set
forth in similar images. See also Fs. Ixxxv. 10-14,
and Ps. cxxxii. 17, Luke i. 69, Rom. xv. 12-2,
Thess. ii. 8, as compared 'with Isa. xi. 10.

Zech. iii. 8,

" For behold, I will bring forth noiy servant the Branch"

This cannot mean Zerubbabel, though he was a de-
scendant from David, for the terms here and elsewhere
used are too magnificent to be applied to a person of
his limited authority and influence. Besides, he was
already " brought forth," whereas this passage points
to some future personage, and that can be no other
than the great Messiah, under whom the reign of
peace and righteousness was to commence and to
continue. The Hebrew term employed here is
tzemek, whereas in Isaiah it is netzer, the latter mean-
ing a plant springing from the old root, and reserved
when the tree is cut down the former, a sprout,
branch, or shoot.
Zech. vi. 12,

" Behold the man, The Branch is his name,
And he shall branch out from his place,
And he shall build the temple of Jehovah,
And he shall receive glory,
And shall sit' and rule .upon his throne,
And shall also be a priest upon his throne,
And the counsel of peace shall be between these two."

Here again, the terms are too high for either Zerub-
babel or Joshua, though something of a primary ap-
plication to them may be admitted, yet the plenary
fulfilment must be looked for in a greater than these.
It is well observed by Blayney, that this passage,

62 BRANCH.

strictly and literally translated, will not .answer' to
any other but the Messiah, who was at once both king
and priest, and, by uniting both characters in himself,
was completely qualified to bring about the counsel
of peace or -reconciliation between God and man.

Branch is the symbol of idolatrous worship. -

Ezek. viii. 17, And lo, they put the branch to
their nose." (Heb. Zemer.)

The. tarrying of branches in the superstition of the
Gentiles, and the custom of the Jews, was a sign of
honour. And this it is that God complains of; they
carried branches as if they did him honour, but they
held them to their noses like mockers ; that is, they
mocked him secretly, when they worshipped him
publicly ; they came with fair pretences and foul
hearts; their ceremony was religious all over, but
their lives were not answerable. Taylor's Worthy
Communicant, ch. 5, sect. 3. See 70. Theodotion
and Symmachus, as there cited.

Newcome renders it, " And lo, they send forth a
scornful noise through their nostrils." This, he says, is
the rendering of Aquila, Symmachus, and of some copies
of the Septuagint. The Septuagint has it thus :

" And lo, they are as it were insulting me to my face."
But, in favour of the common version, Dathe says,
that a late writer on the religion of Persia, enumer-
ates among the sacred furniture a bundle of twigs,
called Barsom in the old Persic language, which they
hold in their hands while praying. Michaelis says,
that they held it before their face opposite to the holy
fire ; and that it is represented in D'Anquetils' Voy-
ages, tab. 3. Spencer observes, that the heathens,
in the worship of their deities, held forth the branches

BRANCH. 63

of those trees which were dedicated to them. See
Soph. (Ed. Tyr. line 2, 3, &c.

** Wherefore sit you here,
And suppliant thus, with sacred boughs adorn'd,
Crowd to our altars ?"

on which Professor Francklin has the following note :
" When prayers and supplications were to be made,
either in the temples or other places, the petitioners
carried boughs in their hands, bound round with fil-
lets of white wool ; this was always looked on as, a
mark of distress, which entitled them to a peculiar re-
gard, rendered their persons sacred, and protected
them from all violence. It is not improbable, but that
this custom among the Greeks was borrowed from the
Jews, whom we find carrying boughs on solemn fes-
tivals." See Maccab. ch. 13.

But as there seems no distress in the case men-
tioned in the text, but rather provocation and impiety,
the rendering of Archb. Newcome appears preferable.

The Vulgate version is, " They apply the branch to
their nostrils," which the translator Jerome explains
by " a branch of the palm tree with which they
adorned the idols." " The text (says Parkhurst on
Zemer,} seems plainly to allude to the Magian fire
worshippers, who, Strabo tells us, lib. 15, when they
were praying before the sacred fire, held a little
branch of twigs in their hand." See more in the same
place. And Home's Introd. v. 3, p. 385, edit. 2.

In Isaiah xiv. 19, An abominable branch" means
a tree oh which a malefactor has been hanged, for
such were held in detestation. See Lowth in loc.

In Ezek. xvii. 4, Jehoiachin is called the highest
branch of a cedar, as being king.

64 BBANCH......BB,ASS.

, , OUve branches, Zech. iv. 12. See under olive. ,

Branch of the vine, John xy. 2. " Like the withered
branches which are gathered for fuel and burnt."

Branches are symbols of prosperity or calamity.
" Ramus creberrime (says Glassius, p. 809>) multis-
que vpcitus synonymis, usurpatur in allegoriis, quibus
prosperitas imagine crescentis, virentis, vigentisque
arboris proponitur ; et vice versa infelicitas ac cala-
mitates imagine arboris mafcescentis." Gen. xlix. 22.
Job. xv. 32 xxix. 19. Ps. Ixxx. 11,12. Isa. xxv.
5. Ezek. xvii. 6. Mai. iv. Ij &c. &c.

BRASS. The symbol of insensibility, baseness,
and presumption or obstinacy in sin.

See Isa. xlviii. 4,

" Because I knew that thou wert obstinate,
That thy neck was a.sinew of iron,
And that thy brow was brass."

Jer. vi. 28,

" They are brass and iron, all of them,
Instruments of adulteration are they."

Brass and iron are the baser metals, used to adulterate
the pure silver.
Ezek. xxii. 18,

" They are all brass and tin, and iron and lead,
In the midst of the furnace,
; They are even the dross of silver."

Kingdom of brass. It is by this epithet that the
Macedonian empire is described, in Dan. ii. 39? in al-
lusion to its warlike nature the arms in these times
being generally made of brass.

Mountains of brass, Zee. vi. 1. It is difficult to

say what these mean, unless we interpret them, as

1 Vitringa does^of those firm and immutable decrees by

which God governs the world. The psalmist has an

BRASS.... ..BREAST. 65

expression resembling it, in Ps. xxxvi. 6, " Thy right-
eousness is like the great mountains."

Brass is also the symbol of strength. See Ps. cvii.
16. Isa. Ixv. 4.

Mich. iv. 13,

" Thine horn will I make iron,
And thine hoofs will I make brass ;"

i. e. to overcome all enemies, and tread them down,
as an ox the corn in threshing, whose hoofs are shod
with iron or brass, Deut. xxv. 4, Hosea x. 11.

So in Jer. i. 1 8, and ch. xv. 20, brazen walls signify
a strong and lasting adversary or opposer.

Deut. xxviii. 23, " The heaven over thy head shall
be brass," &c. ; i. e. rain shall be withheld, and the
earth shall be barren.

Isa. xlv. 2, " I will break in pieces the gates of
brass," &c. ; i. e. the brazen gates of the wall of Baby-
lon, of which there were a hundred. See Herod, b.
i. 179, 180.

Fine brass or aurichalcum, Rev. i. 1 5 ii. 1 8.
See Parkhurstfs Greek Lex. on ^XxoX;/3avoii.
BREAST. Breast is, by the Oneirocritics, ex-
plained of prudence. So the Indian, c. 76, and the
Persian and the Egyptian interpreters, make it the
symbol of long life, riches, and victory, which are the
effects and marks of wisdom.

The Greeks seem to have had the notion, that the
breast was the seat of wisdom ; for Qpvtftos wise, with
them came from <pvs?, which are the prcecordia, the
parts of the breast about the heart ; whence Juvenal,
speaking of a dull youth, says, Sat. 7, v. 160, " quod
lasva in parte mamillae nil salit Arcadico Juveni."
Nahum ii. 7,

E

66 BREAST BREASTPLATE.

" And her handmaids are carried sway as with the voice of

doves,
Smiting (or tabering) upon their hreasts."

As the tabret is beaten with the fingers, and those
lingers are applied to a skin stretched over an hollow
hoop, the description gives great life to the words of
the prophet Nahum, who compares women beating
on their breasts, in deep anguish, to their playing on
a tabret. (Harmer 1, 482.)

Levit. vii. 30, " That the breast may be waved for
a wave-offering before Jehovah."

The offerer's waving of the breast of the sacrifice
to God, was typically giving up to him the heart and
affections ; and this being afterwards allotted to the
priest, reminded the believer that He only whom the
priest represented, did ever, in his own person, make
an entire and continual surrender of his heart and
will to God. See Parkhurst on here.

BREASTPLATE. Breastplates are defensive
arms, denoting and giving courage and undauntedness
to those that use them ; and, by reflection, striking
terror and amazement into those they are employed
against. Accordingly, to dream of finding or putting
on a breastplate, is, with the Oneirocritics, c. 1 56, the
symbol of joy for the destruction of enemies, &c. ;
249, the symbol of riches to be obtained by valour.

The military cuirass or breastplate was made with
rows or scales of metal placed on each other, for the
better defence of the warrior. Homer has described
one of these breastplates, as used by the Greeks at
the Trojan war. H. 11, 1. 24, 25.

" Her rows of azure steel the work infolds
Twice ten of tin, and twelve of ductile gold."

POPE.

BREASTPLATE. 67

In another place, H. 13, 1. 439, he calls a breastplate
a vest of brass} and Virgil thus describes the ar-
mour of Turnus, Mn. 11, 1. 487.

" Clad in a cuirass rough with brazen scales."

The breastplate of the Jewish high-priest is parti-
cularly described in Lev. xxviii. 15, xxxix. 8, &c. It
contained the Urim and Thummim, Lights and Per-
fections ; for an explanation of which, see Park. Heb.
Lex. on ar.

Isaiah beautifully characterises the Redeemer of
Israel, by saying (ch. lix. 1 7-)>

" And he put on righteousness as a breastplate,

And the helmet of salvation was on his head,
And he put on the garments of vengeance for his clothing,
And he clad himself with zeal, as with a mantle."

The language of Isaiah is in some measure copied
by Paul in Eph. vi. 14 and 17, where the same terms
are figuratively employed to point out the spiritual
armour of true believers.

In Thess. v. 8, the language is altered, from the
breastplate of righteousness, to the breastplate of 'faith
and love. On both of which passages see Chandler..

In Rev. ix. 9, the mystical locusts are said to have
" breastplates, as it were breastplates of iron," which
agrees very well with the condition of the natural lo-
cust, which has about its body a pretty hard shell, of
the colour of iron : " Armavit natura cutem," says
Claudian.

And in verse 17. of the same chapter, the horse-
men are described as having breastplates of fire, and of
jacinth, or hyacinth, and brimstone, *. e. of red, blue,
and yellow colours, denoting the terror of their ap-

68 BREASTPLATE.... ..BRIMSTONE BUIDL.

pearance, when marching to war; probably referring
to the Saracenic invasions and conquests in 713.

BRIMSTONE. The symbol of a perpetual tor-
ment and destruction.

Thus in Job xviii. 15, " Brimstone shall be scat-
tered upon his habitation ;" i. e. his house or family
shall be destroyed for ever, by an inextinguishable
fire.

Brimstone, q. d. brenne stone, i. e. burning stone,
was used by the heathen in their religious purifica-
tions. See Juvenal and Lucian, as quoted by Park-
hurst on 6tiov ; and God made it an instrument of his
vengeance on the heathen and other delinquents. See
Ps. xi. 6 ; Deut. xxix. 23 ; and Jude ver. 7.

Isaiah, speaking of the enemies of the church, un-
der the designation of Edom, and their destiny, ch.
xxxiv. 9j says,

" And her torrents shall be turned into pitch,
And her dust into sulphur :
And her whole land shall become burning pitch."

And respecting Tophet, ch. xxx. 33, his language is,

'' For Tophet is ordained of old,
Even the same for the king is prepared:
He hath made it deep ; he hath made it large ;
A fiery pyre, and abundance of fuel,

And the breath of Jehovah, like a stream of brimstone, shall
kindle it."

Rev. ix. 17. See under Breastplate.

See, also Rev. xiv. 10, xx. 10, xxi. 8; in all which
places there seems to be an allusion to the manner in
which God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah.

BUILD. In the Oneirocritics (Achmet's Coll.
c. 145.), any kind of building implies settlement of a
family, or acquisition of some new honour, kingdom,

BUILD. 69

or power, and its peaceful enjoyment according to the
subject; and, by consequence, a formal change of
state. .

And thus, in several places of Holy Scripture, the
building of a city As in order to a quiet settlement.

The first that is said to have built a city is Cain,
Gen. iv. 17. This undoubtedly he did to comfort
himself, and thus to take off the odium of being a va-
gabond, which God had inflicted on him. So that
the said city he designed to be a full settlement, and
he therefore called it Enoch, which signifies Dedica-
tion, or the beginning of a settlement ; a dedication
requiring a quiet possession and enjoyment for some
time, as in Deut. xx. 5. The manner of dedicating a
house or city, was probably wont to be done with the
solemnity of feasting, prayer, and singing of Psalms.
See Neh. xii. 27 ; Ps. xxx. title.

The same may be said of the building of Babel ;
which was designed for a settlement, contrary to the
command of God, as Josephus hints, who willed that
mankind should then spread themselves by colonies.
But, however, the building of that was pretended to
be a settlement, " Let us build us a city and tower,
whose top may reach to heaven ; and let xis make us a
name, lest we be scattered over the face of the whole
earth." Gen. xi. 4.

But farther, that the building of a city is in order
to a quiet settlement, is evident from the Psalmist,
" They wandered in the wilderness in a solitary way,
and found no city to dwell in," Ps. cvii. 4 ; and verse
7, " He led them forth by the right way, that they
might go to a city of habitation," or settlement ; mou-

70 BUILD.

skeb, from isheb, which signifies not only to sit, but
to stay, remain, persevere, or abide, as in Micah v. 4.
So also in 2 Ghron. xiv. 6, 7, it is said, " And he
built fenced cities in Judah; for the land had rest,
and he had no war in those years, because the Lord
had given him rest. Therefore he said unto Judah,
Let us build these cities. And he hath given us rest
on every side." All which imports that the building
of a city is in order to settle in peace.

The same notion appears also in these verses of
Virgil, Mn. 1. v. 251, &c.

" Hie tamen ille urbem," &c.
" At length he founded Padua's happy seat,
And gave his Trojans a secure retreat ;
Here fix'd their arms, and there renew'd their name,
And there in quiet rules, and crown'd with fame.
But we^ descended from your sacred line,
Entitled to your heav'n, and rites divine,
Are banish'd earth, and for the wrath of one,
Removed from Latium, and the promised throne."

DRYDEN.
So also in JEn. 1. 8, v. 46 :

" Hie locus urbi erit," &c.
" This is thy happy home, the clime where fate
Ordains thee to restore the Trojan state."

To build or make a house, is sometimes a Hebraism,
meaning to prosper a family. Thus, Exod. i. 21,
" And it came to pass, because .the midwives feared
God, that he prospered their own families."

Ruth iv. 1 1, Who did build the house of Israel ;"
i. e. who increased his family by a numerous progeny.

Ps. Ixxxix. 4, " I will build up thy throne to all ge-
nerations ;" i. e. I will perpetuate thy kingdom to thy
posterity.

Isaiah Ixi. 4,

BUILD BULL. 71

" And they that spring from thee shall build up the ruins of

old times ;

They shall restore the ancient desolations :
They shall repair the cities laid waste,
The desolations of continued ages."

i. e. the Gentiles, so long a moral wilderness, shall be
brought into the knowledge and service of the true
God, like an ancient city rising from its ruins.

BULL is sometimes used in Scripture metaphori-
cally to represent violent and furious enemies. Thus,
Ps. xxii. 12,

" Many bulls have compassed me,
Strong bulls of Bashan have beset me round."

The Chaldee has it, " people like pushing bulls."

The high-priests, scribes, Herod, Pilate, set against
Christ.

Ezekiel uses the same phrase to point out " the
princes of the earth," ch. xxxix. 1 8, where see New-
come.

Ps. Ixviii. 30, the multitude of the bulls," &c.

Dureli has an ingenious conjecture on this verse.
He renders it thus :

" Rebuke the beast of the reed,
The congregation of bulls with the calves ;
The people of the sea, who humble themselves before frag-
ments of silver;
Scatter the people who delight in. war."

" By the beast of the reed (says he) is clearly meant
the hippopotamus, which denotes the Egyptians. The
company of bulls and calves is a plain allusion to their
Apis and Serapis, or Isis and Osiris, which they wor-
shipped, and to which the third hemistich refers, call-
ing these idols contemptuously * fragments of silver,'
because overlaid or plated with that metal.

" They are called ' the people of the sea.' Isaiah

72 BULL BURIAL.

describes their country (ch. xi. 15.) by the tongue of
the Egyptian sea, and by the seven streams.

" They are called ' a people that delight in war/
where the Psalmist concludes, as he had begun, by
requesting God to repress their fury."

Jer. 1. 26, " Open her fattening stalls," &c.; ver. 27,
Slay all her bullocks," &c. Fattening stalls mean the
cities of Babylon, and her bullocks the. inhabitants,
who were pampered like beasts fattened for the
slaughter.

The ancient heathen used to sacrifice bulls to Ju-
piter, thus Ovid, Metam. lib. 4, line 756,
" Taurus tibi, summc Deorum."

Compare Virgil, jEn. 9, 1. 627-

BURIAL, is an honour paid to the dead.

The want of it was always looked upon as a cir-
cumstance of the greatest misery, Ps. Ixxix. 1, 2, 3 ;
Eccles. vi. 3 ; Potter's Arch. Grseca, 1. 2, 1. 4, c. 1 :
and. the denial of it, as an act of the greatest punish-
ment, Arch. Graeca, v. 2, p. 165.

But the Oneirocritics consider burial in another
view, as the consummation of all.

And therefore, not to be buried, in visions that
portend good, is bad ; and in such as portend bad,
good.

And, therefore, in relation to such visions as por-
tend bad, the Indian Interpreter, in ch. 130j says,
" That if any one dream that he is buried, his burial
denotes that his utter ruin is certain. But if he dreams
that any of the things which belong to his burial are
wanting, that deficiency portends good hopes of
safety." .
, Dead men in the grave are apt to be forgotten, Ps.

BURIAL. 73

xxxi. 1 2, Ps. Ixxxviii. 6. And therefore, in Ps. Ixxxviii.
11, 12, the grave is synonymous to the land of for-
getfulness ; and in Ps. xxxiv. 17> Ps. cxv. 17> 1 Sam.
ii. 9 silence is put for the grave.

And in Ovid, Metam. 1. 5, v. 355, Silentes, or men
in silence, .are dead men.

Hence, not to suffer a person to be put into the
grave, denotes that he shall be remembered, and not
be suffered to be put into eternal silence ; the grave,
in profane authors, being called an everlasting house.
Soph. Antiq. 1. 250; Cic. Tusc. Quest. 1, in fin.

On the contrary, the notion of the word ftvtjfia, mo-
nument, is opposed to the aforesaid notion of a grave
as a place of silence, and land of forgetfulness. For
men, considering the grave to be such a place, have
endeavoured to alter its property, by erecting monu-
ments, which should record their names and actions
to posterity.

And in this sense, not to suffer a person to be put
into a monument, denotes that means will be used in
order to obliterate his memory, to the end that his
actions may never be imitated, nor his cause revived.

So the word Sepulchrum (sepulchre), in Horace
(Epod. 9> v. 26.), is to be taken. " Virtus sepulchrum
condidit," his valour hath raised him a monument, i. e.
hath eternized his memory hath gotten him perpe-
tual renown.

And, therefore, to dream of having or building a
tomb or sepulchre, is, according to Artemidorus, lib.
2, "a dream; that -portends good both to rich and
poor ; to a slave, that he shall obtain his freedom,
to a childless person, that he shall have an heir, to

74 BURIAL .BURN.

a poor man, that lie shall get an estate, and to an
unmarried person, a sign of marriage."

Jer. xxii. 19, " With the burial of an ass shall he
be buried."

; Jehoiakim being surprised in an ambuscade, and
not slain, but made prisoner, 2 Kings xxiv. 2, was
carried to the king of Babylon, who detained him in
close custody till he could conveniently send him to
Babylon. But bis design being frustrated by his pre-
vious death, which happened soon after his confine-
ment, Nebuchadnezzar, at once to testify his indigna-
tion against him, and perhaps to intimidate his suc-
cessor from exasperating him by a long resistance,
ordered his dead body to be ignominiously cast forth
without burial before the walls of Jerusalem, as is
foretold both in this passage and in ch. xxxvi. 30.

BURN. The burning of. heaps of armour, was
used by the Eomans as an emblem of peace.

Isaiah has the same image, ch. ix. 4,

" For the graves of the armed warrior in the conflict,
And the garment rolled in much blood,
Shall be for a burning, even fuel for the fire."

The Psalmist employs this image to express com-
plete victory, and a perfect establishment of peace,
Ps.xlvi. 9,

" He hath destroyed the artillery .of wars to the end of the earth.
He hath broken the bow, and snapped the spear short off,
He hath burnt the carriages in the fire."

Ezekiel, in his bold manner, has carried the image
to a high degree of amplification. He describes the
burning of the arms of the enemy, in consequence of
the complete victory to be obtained by the Israelites
over Gog and Magog, ch. xxxix. 8 10. The vie-

BURN. 75

tory was to be so great, that they should suffice for
fires on the mountains and in the open fields for seven
years.

" Behold, it cometh to pass and shall be done, saith the Lord

Jehovah :

This is the day whereof I have spoken.
And they that dwell in the cities of Israel shall go forth,
And shall set on fire and burn the armour, the shields and

the bucklers,

The bows and the arrows, and the handstaves and the spears ;
And they shall burn them with fire seven years :
So that they shall take no wood from the field,
Neither cut down any from the forests ;
For they shall burn the armour with fire ;
And they shall spoil those that spoiled them,
And shall plunder those that plundered them,
Saith the Lord Jehovah."

" The burning bush" (Exod. ii. 2.), was an emblem
of the condition of Israel at that time ; they were then
in the fire of affliction, yet, by the divine Providence,
they were not consumed in it, of which .this vision
was a pledge.

" The spirit of burning," Isa. iv. 4, according to
Lowth, means the fire of God's wrath, by which he
will prove and purify his people ; gathering them into
his furnace, in order to separate the dross from the
silver, the bad from the good. The severity of God's
judgments, the fiery trial of his servants, Ezekiel (ch.
xxii. 1822.) has set forth at large, after his manner,
with great boldness of imagery, and force of expres-
sion. God threatens to gather them into the midst
of Jerusalem as into the furnace ; to blow the fire upon
them, and to melt them.

Malachi treats the same subject, and represents the
same events under the like images, ch. iii. ver. 2, 3 :

76 BUHN......BYSS.

** But who may abide the day of his coming ?
And who shall stand, when he appeareth ?
For he is like the fire of the refiner,
And like the soap of the fullers,
And he shall sit refining and purifying the silver ;
And he shall purify the sons of Levi,
And cleanse them like gold, and like silver ,
That they may be Jehovah's ministers,
Presenting unto him an offering in righteousness."

B YSS. The cotton plant, of which very fine white
garments like linen were made. It grows in Palestine,
in pods. It is the soft downy substance formed in
the inside of the pods of the shrub called Gossipium.

When David went to bring up the ark from the
house of Obed-edom, he was clothed with a robe of
byss, 1 Chron. xv. 27- The same is described as the
apparel of the rich man, Luke xvi. 19- The garments
of the Jewish priests were made of it. Byss gar-
ments were worn also by the Egyptian priests. See
Plut. de Iside ; Porphyr. de Abstin. ; Harmer's Obs,
v. 2, p. 358.

Hence a white byss garment, as being the most va-
luable, denotes, symbolically, the highest and most
perfect holiness and prosperity. Thus the church of
Christ is represented, under the character of the bride,
as being arrayed in fine linen, clean and white, which
fine linen (it is added) is the righteousness of saints,
i. e. a divine nature and disposition, ornaments more
valuable than the costly habits of eastern princes, or of
ancient priests (Rev. xix. 8.)

Theocritus mentions byss as a clothing worn by
women oh festive occasions, Idyll. 2. 1. 73,

" Trailing a beauteous robe of bj-ss."

CALF. 77

CALF. The word calf in Scripture style, is for
most part so general as to be taken for the whole
species, the word belter which is often translated by
fas, an ox, in the Seventy, being also frequently ren-
dered by po<r%or, calf.

The symbol of the ox, calf, or steer, when there is
no mention made of horns, is taken in general for
what is signified by the whole animal ; whose prime
or chief quality is labour, patience, and riches, or the
great product of corn.

So in the dream of Pharaoh, the seven kine de-
noted so many harvests ; their number determining
the years, which is peculiar to kine, as the Oneirocri-
tics all allow in ch. 238, 239-

1 In the Proverbs of Solomon, ch. xiv. 4, it is said,
-" Much increase is by the strength of the ox." So
that the ox has the signification of increase with great
labour ; and is, therefore, in Deut. xxv. 4, the sym-
bol of the Jewish and of the Christian priesthood. It
is there said, " Thou shalt not muzzle the mouth of
the ox that treadeth out the corn." On which Paul
remarks, 1 Cor. ix. 9> " Doth God take care for
oxen," as if he had said, When God made this law, do
you think that he had not a nobler design than that
of barely showing kindness to the labouring beasts ?
Yes, surely, he designed that it should be applied to
those who labour in the word and doctrine of his
law ; and who, by sowing among men spiritual things,
deserve at least to reap from them the benefit of
worldly things in return. The same place is applied
to the same purpose by the Apostle in Tim. v. 18.

Agreeably to the account now given, oxen, ac-
cording to Artemidorus, lib. 4, c. 58, are symbols of

78 CALF.

workmen and subjects, i. e. working for the good of
others.

Exodus xxxii. 4, " After he had made it a molten
calf," &c.

The calf here must have been considered merely
as a symbol, for the Israelites could not be so stupid
as to believe, that the idol taken just before out of
the furnace, had been their deliverer at any former
period. The Psalmist speaks with due severity on
this subject, Ps. cvi. 19, 20,

" They made a calf in Horeb, and worshipped the molten

image:

Thus they changed their glory (t. e. God, the proper object
of their adoration), into the similitude of an ox that
eateth grass."

Jerem. xxxiv. 1 8, " In presence of the calf, when
they cut it in twain." So it should be rendered.
In order to ratify the covenant, they killed a calf or
young bullock, which they cut in two, and placing
the two parts at some distance from each other, they
passed between them ; intending to signify by this
rite, that they consented to be served in the like
manner in case they violated their part of the cove-
nant. Something of the like sort was a practice
among the Greeks and Romans upon such occasions,
as may be seen in Homer's *Hiad, 1. 3, 208, and
Livy's Roman History, 1. 1, c. 24, and 1. 21, c. 45.
Hence there will appear a peculiar force in the ex-
pression, of entering into the covenant, in presence
of the calf, because the sight of that object served to
remind them of the penalties they subjected them-
selves to, on violating their engagement. We find
God conforming himself to this usage, when he made
a covenant with Abraham, Gen. xv. 9, 10, 17, 18.

CALF CANDLESTICK. 79

(Blayney.) Hosea viii. 6, " The calf of Samaria
shall be broken in pieces."

It is well known that animals of this species were
worshipped in Egypt, (see Herod. 1. 3, c. 28), the
apis at Memphis, and the mnevis at Heliopolis. As
they are employed in tilling the ground, they may
have been used as symbols of one who had anciently
introduced or improved the art of agriculture. Males
of this kind were dedicated to Osiris, and females to
Isis. The Israelites may have originally borrowed
this superstition from the Egyptians, and may have
afterwards revived it ; imputing the great fertility of
Egypt to the Deity thus represented.

Hosea xiii. 2, " Let the men who sacrifice kiss the
calves."

See 1 Kings xix. 18. Thus Cicero describes a
statue of Hercules as having " rictum ejus ac men-
turn paulo attritius, quod in precibus et gratulationi-
bus non solum adorare, verum etiam osculare sole-
bant." In Verr. act. 2, 1. 4, 43.

Hosea xiv. 2, " So will we render the calves of our
I'.ps." More properly, that we may render the fruit
of our lips.

See Newcome in loc. and Mede, p. 282.

CANDLESTICK or LAMP-SCONCE. Accord-
ing to Artemidorus, lib. 1, c. 76, signifies a wife ; for
which, in ch. 80, he gives this reason, viz. " That as
the lamp or the light thereof signifies the master of
the house, because he overlooks it ; so the lamp-
sconce signifies his wife, whom he rules and presides

over."

And weddings were celebrated in the Eastern
Countries with lamps or torches the bridegroom

80 CANDLESTICK.

and bride, the bridemen and bridemaids, having each
one in their hands. And the same custom was among
the Greeks and Romans; See Matt. xxv. 1, &c.

See Homer, D. 6, v. 492 ; Eurip. Phaeniss. v. 346 ;
Medea v. 1027. See also Virgil Eclog. 8, v. 29.

Note. In all places in the Old or New Testa-
ment, where the words candle and candlestick occur,
it should be invariably lamp and lampstand, for
candles were not used in those days in Judea for
lighting their houses.

We read in the book of Exodus xxv. 31, 32, &c.,
of a candlestick of gold with seven branches, which
Moses made by the command of God to be put in
the tabernacle. To this allusion is made in Rev. i.
10, where the seven candlesticks are declared to be
the symbols of the seven churches. And the seven
stars to be the symbols of the angels of those churches.

This, according to the difference of circumstances,
says Daubuz, which is to be always carefully con-
sidered, is exactly agreeable to the explanation, which
is given of the same symbols, by such of the most
ancient profane writers as were well versed in the
symbolical character and language.

For with them, a candlestick or lampstand was
the symbol of the wife of the party concerned ; and
stars were inferior princes, or governors ruling under
a supreme.

Accordingly, the church, which is frequently re-
presented by the symbol of a woman betrothed or
married to Christ, is here, as consisting of several
particular churches, represented under the symbol of
seven golden candlesticks.

: And as Christ is the head, the high priest, and king

CANDLESTICK CARCASE. 81

of his church, therefore are the visible spiritual rulers
of the church under him represented by stars.

In Rev. ii. 5, the angel of the church in Ephesus
is exhorted to consider his ways, and threatened, if
he, should not, that his church or candlestick should
be removed out of its place. And it is very remark-
able, that at this time there is not so much as one
Christian in that place which was once the famous
city of Ephesus, and to which Paul wrote his valu-
able epistle.

In Rev. xi. 4, the two witnesses are termed " the
two candlesticks standing before the God of the
earth;" in allusion to Zerubbabel, and Joshua, as
described by Zechariah, ch. iv.

Rev. ii. I, " Walking in the midst of the golden
candlesticks," (says Lowman) is an expression taken
from the office of the priests, in dressing the lamps,
which was to keep them always burning before the
Lord. I conceive, therefore, walking here may be
designed to signify not only a care to observe and
know the true state of the churches, but moreover, to
assist and promote their improvement in religion, or
to assist the churches in their proper character, as
consecrated to the service, of God, that they may
shine as lights in the world, in the midst of a crooked
and perverse nation. Phil. ii. 15.

CARCASE. Matt. xxiv. 28, " Wheresoever the
carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together."
That the carcase here is an emblem of the state of
Judea, and the city of Jerusalem, at the time of their
capture and desolation by the Romans, is generally
acknowledged by interpreters.

The carcase, map*, a body fallen to the ground, as

p

82 CARCASE.

being deprived of life, is thrown but like that of some
slain animals, unfit for use, to be preyed on by vul-
tures, or other carrion-fowls.

The transgressions of the Jewish people had risen
to such a height, as to render them offensive in the
eyes of God, like a corpse full of putridity. The
language of their old prophets had become awfully
applicable to them. Zephaniah well described them,
ch. iii. 1, &c.,

" Woe to her that is rebellious and polluted, to the oppressing
city,

She hath not obeyed the voice.

She hath not received instruction,

In Jehovah she hath not trusted,

To her God she hath not drawn near.

Her princes in the midst of her are roaring lions,

Her judges are evening wolves,

They wait not until the morning.

Her prophets are light, they are treacherous men,

Her priests have polluted the sanctuary, they have violated
the law."

And so in Hosea iv. 1, &c.,

" Hear the word of Jehovah, O ye sons of Israel,

For Jehovah hath a controversy with the inhabitants of the
land :

For there is no truth nor mercy,

Nor knowledge of God in the land.

In swearing, and lying, and killing,

And stealing, and committing adultery, have they broken
forth,

And blood reacheth unto blood."

Compare also Isaiah 1. 21, 23 : Mai. iii. 5.
Josephus gives a similar testimony, as an eye witness
to the degraded condition of his countrymen. See
Bell. Jud. lib. 6, c. 36. " I think that had the Ro-
mans forborne to have punished so great criminals,
either the earth would have swallowed up the city, or
some deluge have drowned it, or else the thunder and

CARCASE. 83

lightning; which consumed Sodom, would have fallen
upon it, for .the people of Jerusalem were far more
impious than the Sodomites."

Language resembling this is used respecting Anti-
christian Babylon at a later period, Rev. xviii. 5,
" For her sins have reached unto heaven, and God
hath remembered her iniquities."

A carcase thus thrown out is always attended with
disgrace, as being without sepulture, which, amongst
the ancients, was accounted an unhappiness. Thus
in Ps. Ixxix, 1, &c.

" O God, the heathen are come into thine inheritance,
Thy holy temple they have defiled,
They have laid Jerusalem on heaps.
The dead bodies of thy servants they have given to be meat

to the fowls of heaven,

The flesh of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth,
Their blood they have shed like water round about Jerusalem,
And there was none to bury them."

So Virgil, Mn. 1. 6,

' " Eripe me his invicte malis, et tu mihi terram
Injice."

Arid Valer. Flac. Argon. 1. 1,

" Diripiat laceretque senem, nee membra sepulchro
Cor tegat."

And Virgil again, Mn. 1. 10, v. 559,

" Non te optima mater," &c.
" Lie there, inglorious, and without a tomb,
Far from thy mother, and thy native home,
Expos'd to savage beasts, and birds of prey,
Or thrown for food to monsters of the sea."

DRYDEN.

And 2. Catullus in the Argonautics,

" Pro quo dilaceranda feris dabor, alitibusque
Praeda, nee injecta tumulabor mortua terra."

Such a carcase was Jerusalem, the public offence of

84 CARCASE.

God and men, at the time when it was delivered up
by Divine justice to the Roman vultures. And such
was the scorn with which she was beheld, as to recall
the language of Jeremiah, Lam. ii. 15, 16,

" All that passed by the way have smitten their hands together
at thee,

They hissed and shook their head at the daughter of Jeru-
salem, saying,

Is this the city that they call perfect in beauty, the delight
of the whole earth ? ~ .

All thine enemies have opened their mouths against thee,

They hissed and gnashed the teeth ; they said, We have
swallowed her up,

Surely this is the day which we looked for, we have found,
we have seen it."

To this carcase were gathered together the eagles,
i. e. the 'Roman power. That eagles were the sym-
bols of the Romans, is plain from their whole history.
The Roman generals, as Codinus informs us, wore
the figures of eagles interwoven with their shoes.
Tarquin also carried a golden crown with an ivory
sceptre, on the top of which was an eagle, the ensign
of Roman power, which succeeding emperors adopted,
as we learn from Dionysius, Livy, Floras, Plutarch,
&c. Prudentius notices this, lib. de corona, p. 203.

" Aquila ex eburna sumit arrogantiam
Gestator ejus."

But the eagle was principally the symbol of the Ro-
man army. They carried it on their standards and
military ensigns, either made of gold and silver, or
embroidered on silk or linen. Hence Claudian says,
lib. de Bell Get.

Fuderit imbelles Aquilas servilibus armis."
The Roman coins and medals still bear testimony to
the use of this symbol. See Spanheim and others.

CARCASE. 85

There is great propriety in comparing the Romans
to eagles. The eagle is the king of birds, as Pindar,
Milan, and others, observe. Wherefore it was the
common and suitable symbol of the most potent
monarchs. At the time when Jerusalem was des-
troyed, Rome was mistress of a great part of the
world, and Palestine in particular was subjected to
her sway. The Jews themselves confessed this, John
xix. 15. " We have no king but Caesar." Titus,
then, was the Imperial eagle, by whom the Jewish
carcase was torn. Again, the eagle, was by the law
of Moses an unclean bird, Levit. xi. 13 ; it belongs to
the rapacious kind, which was impure. Deut. xiv.
12. So the Roman nation was held to be impure by
the Jews, and with whom they could have no inter-
course, as appears from John xviii. 28, " they them-
selves went not into Pilate's judgment hall, lest they
should be defiled." Indeed, all the Gentile nations
were considered to be impure, as being addicted to
idolatry, whence they were called dogs, Rev. xxii. 1 5.

Eagles were also the emblems of strength and
swiftness, hence Saul and Jonathan are compared to
them, 2 Sam. i. 23. And of the spoiler of Moab it
is said, Jer. xlviii. 40, " He shall fly as an eagle, and
shall spread his wings over Moab." Compare Jer.
xlix. 22; Dan. vii. 4; Hosea viii. 1 ; Ezek. xvii. 3,
where the wings of eagles denote strong armies. And
the Roman army is called by Daniel, ix. 27, " The
wing of abominations." Such was Titus, who flew
with a mighty force to Jerusalem, and made it his
prey.

Its rapacity and partiality for carcases is remarked
by Job. xxxix. 30,

86 CARCASE.

" Her young ones suck up blood,
And where the slain are, there is she ;"

a passage on which our Lord is supposed to have had
his eye, when he made use of the expression in Matt,
xxiv. 28. Such were the eagles who devastated Je-
rusalem, as affectingly described by Josephus, 1. 6, c.
14, and elsewhere. " The houses were full of dead
women and infants ; and the streets were filled with
the carcases of old men ; and the young men pale
like ghosts, walked about the market place, and fell
down dead where it happened. And now the multi-
tude of dead bodies was so great, that they who were
alive could not bury them, nor indeed cared they for
burying them, being now uncertain what should be-
tide themselves."

The eagle was esteemed by the heathen as the
minister of supreme Jove, and was sacred to him.
Hence Horace, lib. 4, ode 4, " Qnalem ministrum,'
fulminis alitem, cui Rex Deorum regnum in aves
vagas permisit."

" As the winged minister of thundering Jove,
To whom he gave his dreadful bolts to bear,
Faithful assistant of his master's love,
King of the wandering nations of the air," &c.

WEST.

We see in coins the eagle holding the thunderbolt
in its. feet, (as in Spanheim and others), a fiction
founded, as Pliny tells us, on the fancy that this is
the only bird never destroyed by lightning ; but
more likely to have originated in its remarkable
swiftness. And the souls of the deified or consecrated
Emperors were believed to be transported to heaven
by this bird.

So Titus was the minister of the true God, in his

CARCASE CALDRONT. 87

expedition against the Jews, acting as his executioner
to inflict vengeance on that infidel and rebellious na-
tion, because of their rejection of the Messiah, a fact
which the Roman general himself acknowledged, as
Josephus informs us : " Surely God," said he, " hath .
assisted us in this war, and he it was that drove the
Jews from these fortresses. For what could men's
hands and engines prevail against them ?"

King, in his Morsels of Criticism, v. 1, p. 394, gives
a more extended meaning to the passage in Matt. xxiv.
and paraphrases it thus : " Wherever, on the face of
the whole earth, the corrupt mass of lawless violent
people, disturbing the peace and prosperity of alt
human society, is, there will those dreadful and an-
gelic powers, who are to be the ministers of God's
vengeance, on the great advent of our Lord, be as-
sembled and appear."

And he considers it to be an allusion to the predic-
tion of the prophet Ezekiel in his 39th chr. But I
do not see the force of his reasonings.

See under Eagle.

CALDRON. Ezek. ii. 3,

" It is not near that we should build houses ,
This city is the caldron, and we are the flesh ;"

i. e. the time is not near that we should build houses
in a foreign land (Jerem. xxix. 5). Here we shall
die in mature age, as the choice pieces are not taken
out of the caldron till they are perfectly prepared.
The image is suggested by the process at the Jewish
sacrifices. See 1 Sam. ii. 13, 14. In opposition to
this, God says, ver. 7, that if Jerusalem is the caldron,
it is the caldron of the slain ; and, ver. 1 1, that it
should not be the caldron of many, who were destin-

88 .CALDRON CEDAR,

ed to flee and to perish in the extreme parts of their
country. See 2 Kings, xxv. 6, 7, 21.

See the same image more expanded in ch. xxiv.
ver. 3, 4, 5, &c. where the good pieces and choice
joints mean the great men of Jerusalem ; the bones
signify the meaner people, and the scum denotes wick-
edness. The burning of the bones and of the pot
refers to God's judgments, not only on the inhabitants, '
but also on the city.

CEDAR is the symbol of a great king. See Ezek.
xvii. 3, where Jehoiachin is probably meant.

And Ezek. xxxi. 3, where the top, or leader,, is sup-
posed to represent the king of Assyria, and the thick
boughs his subordinate kings and rulers. His ruin is
strikingly described in verses 12 and 13. Virgil has
a similar comparison with respect to the fall of Troy

" Rent like a mountain ash, which dar'd the winds,
And stood the sturdy strokes of labouring hinds.
About the roots the cruel ax resounds,
The stumps are pierc'd with oft repeated wounds.
The roots no more their upper load sustain,
But down she falls, and spreads a ruin through the plain."

JEN. 1. 2, 626.

Zech. xi. 2, " Howl, O fir tree,- because the cedar
is fallen." Under these images, the fall of mighty
men, and the subversion of the Jewish polity, are re-
presented. (Seeker.)

Isaiah, ii. 13, "Even against all the cedars of Le-
banon." See Lowth's excellent note on the passage.

See also Amos, ii. 9 ; Homer, B. 13, 359 j Horace,
Od. 1. 4, 6 ; Virgil, .En. 5, 447.

Isaiah, xli. 19j "In the wilderness I will give the
cedar," Sec.,, expressing the relief to be afforded to
them, while fainting with heat in their journey through
that hot country, destitute of shelter, by causing shady

CEDAR...... CHAIN. 89

trees, and those of the 'tallest and most beautiful
kinds, to spring up for their defence. The apocry-
phal Baruch, speaking of the return from Babylon,
expresses God's protection of his people by the same
image : " Even the woods, and every sweet smelling
tree, shall overshadow Israel by the commandment of
God ;" ch. v. 8.

Th:s tree was the symbol of eternity, because its
substance never decays nor rots. Hence the Ark of
the Covenant was made of cedar ; and those are said
to utter things worthy of cedar, who write that which
no time ought to obliterate. It is used to point out
persons of eminence, or men of power, who are often
called in scripture cedars of Lebanon, and of whom
Isaiah says, ch. ii T 13, " The day of the Lord shall
come upon them."

CHAIN signifies liinderance from action. So Ar-
temidorus, 1. 3, c. 35. See Bind.

It is sometimes used figuratively in a bad sense, as
in Ps. Ixxiii. 6, " Therefore pride compasseth them
about as a chain." So Naumach. in sentent. " Nei-
ther do you wear on your neck the purple jacinth,
and the green jasper, which make fools proud." And
Euripides, Electra v.,176, " Nor am I carried away
with pride on account of my golden chains."

Sometimes it is used in a good sense, as in Col. iii.
14, where Paul calls "love the bond or chain of per-
fectness," or the perfect bond.

Ezek. vii.23,

" Make a chain,

For the land is full of bloody judgment,
And the city is full of violence."

" Make a chain," to denote that the people will be led

90 CHAIN.

away captive in chains. It was a symbolical action.
Ezek. xvi. 11,

" I put bracelets upon thy hands,
And a chain upon thy neck."

Newcome says, rebed, in Arabic, denotes " a variegat-
ed collar of wool hung for ornament about the neck
of an animal."

" It pectore summo
Flexilis obtorti per collum circulus auri."

VIRG. ./En. 5, 558.

Paul mentions his chain as a prisoner repeatedly, viz.
in Acts xxviii. 20 ; Eph. vi. 20 ; 2 Tim. i. 16 ; i. e.
Paul's right hand was fastened to the soldier's left
hand, after the manner of the Romans, with a long
chain. The scholiast on Juvenal says, " that it is
called a camp-prison when the captives are delivered
chained, so that the same chain fastens both the pri-
soner and soldier."

Sometimes, for farther security, they were bound
to two soldiers, with two chains, as was Peter's case.
See Acts xii. 6. See also Pliny, 1. 10, ep. 30 ; Se-
neca, ep. 5 ; and liber de Tranquill. c. 10.

Prov. i. 9> parental instruction is beautifully com-
pared to chains about the neck. One of the Rabbi-
nical writers has a similarly elegant expression, Vaji-
her Rabb. 12," The words of the law are a coronet
to the head, a chain to the neck, tranquillity to the
heart, and a collyrium to the eyes." The Egyptian
judges used to wear a golden chain about the neck,
with a gem suspended, on which was engraved Truth,
(Diod. Sic. lib. 1.)

That eminent persons were thus adorned is plain
from the honours paid to Joseph and Daniel, Gen.
xli. 42, and Dan. v. 7, 16, 29.

CHAIN......CHABIOT. 91

Brides also received these as parts of their attire,
-as appears from Cant. i. 10, and iv. 9. Selden, in
his Uxor Hebrsea, quotes from the Gemara Hierosol.
this passage : " Velamina sponsis sunt sindories acu-
pictaB, quibus appenduntur monilia aurea." Penelope
also receives a gold chain from her suitor Eurymachus,
as Homer tells us. And Hesiod, describing the dress
of a virgin, in his "Works and Days," v. 74, says,
" They put golden chains upon her person." Orna-
ments of gold, and particularly chains, belong to the
costume of very high antiquity. "Ye daughters of
Israel, weep over Saul, who clothed you in scarlet,
with other delights ; who put on ornaments of gold
upon your apparel." 2 Sam. i. 24 ; Judith, x. 4.

CHARIOT. Chariots are the symbol of govern-
ment, protection, and guardianship, exercised by
princes, and by those who resemble them, towards
the people, their inferiors.

In this sense, EHsha exclaimed, respecting Elijah,
the eminent prophet and teacher of Israel, 2 Kings ii.
12, " O my father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and
the horsemen thereof;" an exclamation repeated by
Joash the King of Israel, on occasion of the death of
Elisha, 2 Kings xiii. 14; meaning, that these two
excellent men availed more to their countrymen by
their prayers and pious example than the kings of the
nations do by their warlike chariots and horsemen.
Compare Ezek. xxvii. 14 with Rev. xviii. 13, where
chariots and horsemen are enumerated among the
wares of Tyre and Babylon, as being part of their
wealth and support.

Chariots are the symbol of armies and their leaders.
See Exod. xv. 4, " Pharaoh's chariots and his host
hath he cast into the sea." 2 Kings xviii. 24, " Wilt

92 CHARIOT.

thou put thy trust in Egypt for chariots and for horse-
men?" is the language of Rabshakeh, and that of his
master is thus represented, 2 Kings xix. 23, " With
the multitude of my chariots I am come up to the
height of the mountains, to the sides of Lebanon."
Psalm xx. 8,

" Some trust in chariots, and some in horses ;
But we will remember the name of Jehovah our God.
They are brought down and fallen ;
But we are risen and stand upright."

Compare Ps. Ixxvi. 7 ; Isa. ii. 7, chap. xxxi. 1. So
Jerem. 1. 37> " A sword is upon their horses, and upon
their chariots." See also Joel ii. 5 ; Micah v. 10.

Chariots are also the emblems of the heavenly host.
This we learn from 2 Kings vi. 17> where the moun-
tain round Elisha appeared to the opened eyes of his
servant, full of horses and chariots of fire. This ap-
pears also from Ps. Ixviii. 18, " The chariots of God
are two myriads, even thousands of angels : the Lord
is among them as in Sinai, in the holy place." This
seems to look back on Deut. xxxiii. 2,

" Jehovah came from Sinai, and rose up from Seir to them ;
He shined forth from Mount Paran,
And he came with ten thousand of his holy ones ;
From bis right hand went a fiery law for them."

Something similar is the language of Isaiah, chap.
Ixvi. 15,

" For behold, Jehovah shall come as a fire,
And his chariot as a whirlwind :
To breathe forth his anger in a burning heat,
And his rebuke in flames of fire."

And so in Hab. iii. 8,

" Was thine indignation against the seas,
When thou didst ride on thine horses, and on thy chariots
of deliverance?"

CHARIOT.... ..CHERUBIM. 93

A description of the royal chariot of Solomon is given
in Cant. iii. -9> 10, which shows the luxury of those
times ; but it probably means a litter or palanquin.

In 1 Chron. xxviii. 18, " Gold is said to be given
for the pattern of the chariot of the cherubims." See
Cherubim.

The chariot mentioned in Isa. xxi. 7, with two
riders, is supposed to represent Darius and Cyrus, the
Medes and the Persians. See Lowth in loc.

The four chariots in Zech. vi. 1, drawn by horses
of different colours, represent the four great empires
of the world in succession, the Assyrian or Babylon-
ian, the Persian, Grecian, and Roman, distinguishable
both by their order and attributes. (Blayney.)

Cant. i. 9,

" I have compared thee, O my love,
To a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots."

The comparison of a beautiful woman to a set of
horses harnessed in a chariot, may perhaps appear
uncouth to the refined manners of this age ; but the
Greek and Latin poets abound in similar comparisons.
Thus Lycophron calls Helen a heifer, and Euripides
calls Polypena a calf, and Horace compares, a young
woman to a mare, lib. 3, ode 2. See Durell on the
passage.

Chariots on our side betoken courage in us, and
safety and skill, with success in feats of arms. But if
they belong to the other side, then, by the rule of
contraries, they denote dread and consternation, and
ill success in war.

CHERUBIM. Much has been written on this
mysterious subject, particularly by the Hutchinsonian

94 CHERUBIM.

Divines, whose opinions may be seen in Parkhurst's
Hebrew Lexicon on the term. .

The Cherubim are mentioned or described in the
following passages, viz. Gen. iii. 24 ; Exod. xxv. 18,
22, and xxxvii. 7, 9 j Levit. xvi. 2 ; Num. vii. 89 5
1 Kings vi. 23, 28, and viii. 7 ; 2 Chron. iii. 10, 13,
and v. 8 ; Ezek. i. .5, 1 1, and x. 20, 22.
. They are also probably alluded to in Isa. ch. vi. ;
Rev. ch. iv. ; Wisdom, ix. 8 ; Heb. ix. 5.

It is agreed by most expositors that they were em-
blems of something beyond themselves ; but the ques-
tion is, of what were they emblematical?
. Parkhurst says they represented the ever blessed
Trinity, and the human nature. of Jesus Christ.
Lowman thinks they represent angels. .
In Genesis iii. 24, they are spoken of as posted at
the entrance of Paradise, after Adam and Eve were
expelled from it.

Taylor, in his Hebrew Concordance s says the che-
rubim must be considered as hieroglyphical, denoting
the perfection or combination of all spiritual and mo-
ral excellencies, which constitute the character of
God's faithful servants or subjects.
Newcome is of Taylor's opinion.
Mede supposes them to be angels, but considers the
cherubim, or four living creatures in the Apocalypse,
to represent the Christian churches in the four regions
of the world, corresponding to the four standards of
Israel, and their ensigns, which he says were those of
a lion, an ox, a man, and an eagle.

Doddridge considers them to be hieroglyphical re-
presentations of the angelic nature, and condemns the

CHERUBIM. S5

Hutchinsonian scheme, which makes them emblems of
the Deity, as a very great absurdity.

Reynolds (of Angels) thinks the four animals de-
scribed in Rev. iv. 7 represents spirits of an order
superior to angels, taken up wholly in contemplation.

Pierce, Whitby, and Macknight all consider them
as representations of angels.

Glassius, Philol. Sacra, p. 777, after quoting a sin-
gular opinion of Museums, who supposes them to
have been a species of large and terrible fowls, because
they are described as winged, says, " But most other
interpreters by the cherubim understand the angels
of God."

Milton refers to this symbolic representation, when
he says of the cherubic shapes,

" Nor less on either side tempestuous fell
His arrows, from the four-fold visag'd four,
Instinct with eyes ; and from the living wheels,
Instinct alike with multitude of eyes."

PAR. LOST, b. 6.

But, with due deference to the forenamed authors,
may we not suggest the probability, that these che-
rubim neither represented angels nor divine subsist-
ences, but were simply the accompaniments of the
chariot-throne of the Deity. God is described as a
King, and, in accommodation to our ideas, he is spo-
ken of as exhibiting regal state, and as occupying a
throne or royal seat, which at times is stationary, but
which, when put in motion, in accordance with the
infinite activity attributed to the Supreme Being, is
set before us as surrounded by wonderful forms, sup-
ported by various emblematic figures, and attended
with the greatest pomp and splendour of divinity.

96 CHERUBIM.

We are confounded by the noise of the restless wheels,
awed by the vision of innumerable eyes, and dazzled
by the brightness of the celestial fire which shines
around it. Milton has very well copied the Prophet's
description, Par. Lost, b. 6, 1. 750,

*' Forth rushed with whirlwind sound

The chariot of paternal Deity,

Flashing thick flames, wheel within wheel undrawn ;

Itself instinct with spirit ; but convoy'd

By four cherubic shapes ; four faces each

Had wond'rous ; as with stars their bodies all,

And wings were set with eyes, with eyes the wheels

Of Beryl, and careering fires between."

In 1 Chron. xxviii. 18, the form of this throne is
referred to, where it is said, " He gave gold for the
pattern of the chariot of the cherubims, that spread
out their wings," &c.

In Ps. Ixviii. 17 5 these chariots are described as
numerous, as if the angels also occupied such, when
they attend in procession on the Deity.

In 2 Sam. xxi. 11, and Ps. xviii. 10, which are
corresponding Scriptures, God is said " to ride upon a
cherub, and to fly," . e. perhaps in a cherubic chariot.

As the description here given is that of a violent
storm, all the elements being in commotion, and all
things carried along with great rapidity, so the lan-
guage employed is intended to express the vehe-
mence, celerity, and magnificent effect of the divine
movements and appearance.

The Chaldee renders it thus :

" He was revealed in his majesty over the swiftest cherubim,
And he rode valiantly on the wings of the wind."

In allusion to the cherubic figures which cover the
mercy-seat, where the "glory" or Schechinah appear-

CHERUBIM*.....CITY. 97

ed, God is repeatedly described as " the Lord which
dwelleth between the cherubim," for whether sta-
tionary or in motion, these seem to be his attendants.
There is a singular passage in Ezek. xxviii; 14, 15,
where he compares the king of Tyre to " the anoint-
ed cherub that covered the ark of the covenant."
Newcome thus translates it:

" I made thee as the anointed covering cherub ;
Thou wast upon the holy mountain of God ;
Thou didst remain amidst the stones of fire ;
Thou wast perfect in thy ways, from the day when thou

wast born,
Until iniquity was found in thee."

In this lamentation, wisdom, beauty, magnificence,
splendour, and perfection are attributed to the king
of Tyre. He likewise bore an exalted and sacred
office. On these accounts he is compared to one of
the angelic orders.

Mr Lowth thus paraphrases the passage : " Such
was thy eminent distinction, that thou wast, as it were,
placed in the temple of God, on his holy mountain.
Thou wast, as it were, conversant among the twelve
precious stones on the breastplate of the High Priest,
which shone like fire." Whenever God, who dwelt
between the cherubim, was approached, the High
Priest wore his breastplate, Exod xxviii. 30 ; 1 Sam.
xxviii. 6.

CITY. A city and its inhabitants are frequently
described in the sacred writings under the similitude
of a mother and her children. Hence the phrase,
" Children of Zion," in Joel ii. 23. As the temple
was situated on Mount Zion, hence the city of Jeru-
salem came to be denoted by it, because a principal

G

98 CITY.

part of it. See the same expression, Ps. cxlix. '2.
Thus, also, .Horace:

" Romffi principis urbium
Dignatur soboles inter amabiles

Vatum ponere me chores. -

CARM. 1. 4, ode .3.

Cities are characterised as virgins, wives, widows,
and harlots, according to their different conditions.
Thus:

Jerusalem is called a virgin, in Isa. xxxvii. 22 ;
Jer. xviii. ; Lam. i. 15, and other places; and Egypt
is so named in Jer. xlvi. 11.

Babylon is called a widow, in Isa. xlvii. 8, 9, and
Jerusalem, in Lam. i. 1. And the term harlot is
used of Jerusalem, Isa. i. 21 ; of Tyre, Isa. xxiii. 16 ;
of Nineveh, Nah. iii. 4 ; and of Samaria, Ezek. xxiii. 5.

When a body politic comes under the symbol of
an animal, and is so considered as one body, the
head thereof by the rule of analogy is its capital city.
Thus. in. Isa. vii. 8, 9, a capital city is a head, and
taken for all the territories belonging to it.

And the Roman authors affected to call Rome the
head of the world. See Ovid, Met. 1. 15, v. 435 ;
Liv. Hist. 1. 21, c. 30 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. 3, c. 5 ;
Val. Max. 1. 8, c. 14.

By the same rule cities, inferior to the general
head, are themselves capital cities, and therefore
heads to their respective provinces.

See under Mother.

GREAT CITY. See .under Babylon.

Num. xxii. 39. And Balaam went with Balak,
and they came to a city of streets : Kiriatli-huzoth

CITY......GLOTHED. 99

in our version. The yulgate has " a city which was
in the remotest bounds of his kingdom."

CLOTHED. To be clothed is a metaphor fre-
quently used to signify, to be accompanied with,
adorned, covered, or protected ; as Job vii. 5, " My
flesh is clothed with worms ;" Job xxxix. 19, " Hast
thou clothed his neck with thunder ? Or, as Durell
renders it, vf'tih pride, Ps. xxxv. 26, " Let them be
clothed with shame and dishonour." Ps. xciii. 1,

" Jehovah is clothed with majesty,
Jehovah is clothed with strength."

Paul also uses it in 2 Cor. v. 2, " Desiring to be
clothed with our house which is from heaven."

Arid in Rom. xiii. 14, " Pitt ye on the Lord Jesus
Christ."

In Judges vi. 34, " The Spirit of the Lord came
upon (lit. clothed) Gideon."

I Sam. xvii. 5, "- Goliah was clothed with a coat of
mail."

Ps. Ixv. 13, " The pastures are clothed with flocks."

In reference to the term clothed as applied to di-
vine influence, we find in Luke xxiv. 29, " Tarry ye
in the city of Jerusalem until ye be endued or in-
vested, tv$v<m<rde, with power from on high." And by
a like phrase, the Spirit is said to rest upon Christ
and his disciples, Isa. xi. 2 ; 1 Peter iv. 14.

CLOUD. A cloud, without any token, shewing
it to be like a storm, always denotes what is good,
and implies success.

. It is in general the symbol of protection, because
it preserves from the scorching heat of the sun, i. e.
anguish and persecution ; and as it likewise distils a
rain or cool and benign influence. It is thus used

100 CLOUD.

by Horace, L. 1, ode 2, v. 31 ; and by Homer, H. 5,
v. 186.

And therefore in Sophocles' Electro, p. 134,
'etntpaXer xetxev, a cloudless evil, is an unavoidable mis-
chief, from which nothing can protect, as the author
himself explains it.

Clouds by the Indian interpreter, c. 163, are ex-
plained of wisdom.

In the next chapter, a king's riding upon the
clouds, is interpreted by the Persian and Egyptian,
of foreign nations serving him of his ruling over
them and of his being exceedingly prosperous and
successful.

In the Holy Writers, the clouds are frequently the
symbols of God's power. Thus, Ps. Ixviii. 34, " His
strength is in the clouds," though strictly speaking,
the term here rendered clouds means the ether or air.
See also 2 Sam. xxii. 12 ; Ps. civ. 3 ; Nahum i. 3.

Ps. Ixxxix. 6, " Who is he in the clouds that can
be compared to Jehovah ?"

Clouds are more especially the symbol of multi-
tudes and armies, as in Jerem. iv. 13,

" Behold, like clouds he shall come up,
And as a whirlwind his chariot."

Meaning the person designed by the Lion and the
destroyer of nations, namely, the king of Babylon.
Isa. Ix. 8,

" Who are these that fly like a cloud,
And like doves upon the wing ?"

The following is Erasmus's note upon this passage :
"The clouds fly aloft, that they may moisten and
render fruitful the earth below. Even so the ministers
of the gospel, raised far above terrene desires, and

CLOTJD. 101

bordering upon heaven, replenish the groveling and
sterile minds of men with the rain of the heavenly
word, that, the thorns and briars being cleared away,
they may bring forth fruit worthy of God. They fly
like clouds, every where diffusing the grace of the
gospel, but they fly, too, like doves to their windows :
for they make not their nest in the ground, but in
the hollow of some lofty rock, that, by their continual
sighs and prayers, they may excite the groveling
mind to a love of the heavenly life."

Heb. xii. 1, " Seeing we also are compassed about
with so great a cloud of witnesses," &c. ; a very just
comparison, seeing that clouds are composed of innu-
merable drops of rain or watery vapour. So in the
poets, multitudes are compared to clouds. As in
Homer, II. 4, v. 273, a cloud of foot is a great com-
pany of foot-soldiers. And Livy has, a cloud of in-
fantry and horsemen ; and Epiphanius, a cloud of
flies ; and Jerome, a cloud of locusts. Ajax, in Ho-
mer, calls Hector the cloud of war. Virgil makes
./Eneas sustain the cloud of war

" Sic obrutus undique telis
yEneas, nubem belli, dam detonet, omnem
Sustinet.

. 10, 808.

To these may be added, a passage from Justin, where.
the growing power of the Romans is compared to a
rising cloud : Lib. xxix. c. 3, " Videre se ait corisur-
genlem in Italia nubem illam trucis et cruenti belli,
videre tonantem ac fulrainantem aboccasu procellam,
quam in quascunque terrarum partes victorias tem-
pestas detulerit, magno cruoris imbre omnia fcedatu-

ram."

102 CLOUD.

A white cloud is a symbol of good success to him
who is assisted by it, and is therefore explained of
prosperity by Artemidoriis in book 2.

Peter compares seducers to clouds carried about
with a tempest, 2 Peter ii. 17> setting forth by this
similitude the inconstancy of their doctrine, and
fickleness of their dispositions, as well as their deceit-
fulness, like clouds that promise rain, and yet are
scattered without yielding any. See Jude 12.

Solomon compares the infirmities of old age, which
arise successively one after another, to " clouds re-
turning after rain," Eceles. xii. 2.

Isa, iv. 5. There is a manifest allusion to the
pillar of cloud and of fire which attended the Israelites
in their passage out of Egypt, and to the glory that
rested on the tabernacle. The prophet Zechariah
applies the same image to the same purpose, ch. ii. 5,

"And I will be unto her a wall of fire round about,
And a glory will I be in the midst of her ;"

i. e. the visible presence of God shall protect her.

In Prov. xvi. 15, the favour of a king is compared
to " a cloud of the latter rain," refreshing and ferti-
lizing the earth.

The sudden disappearance of threatening clouds
from the sky is beautifully employed in Isa. xliv. 22,
as a figure for the blotting out of transgressions. De-
mdsthenes has a passage like it, which was admired
by Longirius, as quoted by Lowth, " This decree
made the danger then hanging over the city to pass
away like a cloud."

Rev. i. 7. The majesty of Christ's appearance is
described by saying, " Behold he cometh with clouds,"
by which some understand, not literal clouds, but

CLOUD. 103

the angels of the host of heaven. See Dan. vih 13 ;
Matt. xxivrSO. : . -

Rev. x. 1, " And I saw another mighty angel come
down from heaven, clothed with a cloud." To come
in the clouds or with the clouds of heaven, is among
the Jews a known symbol of divine power and majes-
ty. Grotius observes a like notion among the hea-
then, that they represented their deities appearing
covered with a cloud

" Tandem venias, precamur,
Nube candentes humeros amictus,
Augur Apollo."

In Ps. xcvii. 2, " Clouds and darkness" appear to
be put as representing the mysterious nature of the
divine operations in his government of the world.

A day of clouds is taken for a season of calamity,
as in Ezek. xxx. 3 ; xxxiv. 12 ; Joel ii. 2 ; Zeph. i. 15,
a metaphor which the poet uses,

" Tempora si fuerint nubila, solus eris."
Is. xix. 1,

" Behold, Jehovah rideth
On a swift cloud and cometh to Egypt ;"

intimating the speediness of the divine infliction on
that country. Clouds in Egypt are generally regard-
ed as inauspicious, since they are rare in that climate,
the overflowing of the Nile sufficing for humidity.

Rev. xiv. 14, " And I looked, and behold a white
cloud, and upon the cloud one sat, like unto the Son
of Man."

Christ himself seems here represented, sitting upon
a bright cloud, which was spread under him, as a
seat of judgment.

104 CLOUD.... ..COLOUR.

Zech. x. 1, , '

" The Lord shall make bright clouds;"
or rather,

" Jehovah will make ready the lightnings."

See Newcome.

Lament, iii. 44, :

" Thou hast covered thyself with a cloud,
That our prayer should not pass through."

God is said at all times to dwell in light inacces-
sible, and when he is described, as here, covering
himself with a cloud, it means his unwillingness to
admit sinners to communion with him to them lie
cannot be propitious, nor can he have any commerce
with them, because they despise his forbearance.

COLOUR. Colour, which is outwardly seen on
the habit of the body, is symbolically used to denote
the true state of the person or subject, to which it is
applied, according to its nature.

Black, see under Slack.

Pale signifies diseases, mortality, and afflictions
arising from them. It is an usual epithet of death.
" Pallida more," say the poets. Hence the pale horse
in Rev. vi. 8, has death for his rider, and the grave
for his attendant, and a commission is given to him
to slay the fourth part of the earth, *. e. of the heathen
Roman empire, by the sword, famine, pestilence, and
wild beasts, a commission which is supposed to have
been executed during the reigns of Maximus, Decius,
Callus, Volucian, and Valerian. St Cyprian notices
this period in his apology to Demetrius the procon-
sul, and expressly declares his judgment, that these
great calamities were according to former predictions,

105

and brought upon the world not because the Chris-
tians rejected the idolatrous Roman worship, but be-
cause the Romans rejected the worship of the true.
God.

Red denotes joy, with or after a great battle or.
slaughter. In Ps. Ixviii. 23, red and blood are ex-
planatory of each other. Isa. i. 18, " Though your,
sins be red like crimson."

" Neque amissos colores
Lana refert medicata fuco,"

says the poet, applying the same image to a different
purpose. To discharge these strong colours is im-
possible to human art or power, but to the grace and
power of God all things, even much more difficult,
are possible and easy. See Lowth in loc.

Isaiah Ixiii. 2, " Wherefore is thine apparel red,
and thy garments as one that treadeth the wine-vat ?'
See Lowth on the passage, and comp. Rev. xix. 13,
&c.

Zech. i. 8, " I saw in the night a man. riding on a
red horse ;" i. e. an angel in the shape of a man. See
v. 11, and Luke xxiv. 4, " Three horses follow him,
red, dun, and white, whose riders were angels." They
have horses, to show their power and celerity ; and
horses of different colours, to intimate the difference
of their ministries. See Rev. vi. 4.

In Zech. vi. 2, the red horses are understood to
denote the bloody Assyrian empire ; but see New-
come.

Rev. xii. 3, satan or antichrist is represented by a
great red or blood-coloured dragon, to describe both
his power and cruelty in opposing true religion.

White, the symbol of beauty, comeliness, joy* and

106 CLOUD.... ..COLUMN.

riches. Esther viii. 15, " Mordecai went out in white
apparel." Eccl. ix. 8, " Let thy garments be always
white."

White clothes are not only the pleasantest in a warm
country, as was Palestine, but also the most expensive,
as they cannot be worn so long as those of other
colours ; luxury is therefore here combined with cost.

This colour, as being of great lustre, and as denot-
ing purity, is attributed to the ancient of days in
Dan. vii. 9, to Jesus Christ in Rev. i. 14, to the garb
of angels in several places, and to the throne of God
in Rev. xx. 11.

White or shining garments are marks of favour
and honour ; under the law, they were the garments
of the priests, and worn in the courts of princes.
Thus Pharaoh honoured Joseph, by arraying him in
vestures of fine linen,- as well as putting a gold chain
about his neck,. Gen. xli. 42. A white garment, as
the emblem of purity, is promised to the Church at
Sardis (Rev. iii. 4), and is interpreted of the right-
eousness of saints (Rev. xix. 8), as well as a mark of
honour. Whence we see the propriety of this em-
blem, to express the peculiar honour and favour God
would shew to them who remained constant and faith-
ful in the purity of the Christian doctrine, worship,
and life.

COLUMN or PILLAR. These, it is well known,
were erected anciently to commemorate great exploits
or extraordinary events. When connected with a
building, they might be called emblems of stability ;
but when standing alone, they were memorial monu-
ments, to record matters that were useful, whether
legislative or historical : "James, Cephas, and John,

COLUMN.... ..CROCODILE. 107

Who seein to be pillars" that is, supporters of the
edifice of the Church, considered as a building,
" the pillar and basis of truth," this last seems to
refer to a monument on which something is inscribed.
The 16th psalm, in the Greek version, has for its
title >A4'<P<j an inscription on a pillar, as if that
psalm related to a conqueror, whose triumphs were
recorded. We know who the victor was who is there
commemorated. .

The custom of consecrating stones among the hea-
then seems to have taken its rise from Jacob's setting
up the stone which he had put for his pillow, and
pouring oil upon the top of it, and afterwards calling
the place Bethel or Bit-al, the house of God, Gen.
xxviii. 18. From this the learned Bochart insists,
that the name and veneration of the sacred stones,
called Bcetyli, so celebrated in all pagan antiquity,
were derived. These Bcetyli were stones of a round
form, and were consulted, on particular occasions, as
a kind of divine oracles ; affording a proof, among
many others, ho'w closely the pagan world imitated,
and how basely they perverted^ the religious rites of
the ancient patriarchs. Thus the setting up of a
stone by Jacob, in. grateful memory of a celestial
vision, and as a monument of the divine goodness,
which had so conspicuously guarded him in his jour-
ney, probably became the occasion of all the idolatry
paid, in succeeding ages, to those shapeless masses of
unhewn stones, of which so many astonishing remains
are scattered up and down the Asiatic, and even the
European, world. See Maurice, v..2, p. 356.

CROCODILE. The term does not occur in our
English version, nor yet in the Septuagint, except in

108 CROCODILE.

one instance, viz. in Levit. xi. 29, where, instead of
the tortoise, the Seventy has the crocodile. The He-
brew here has tzeb.

That the Hebrew tenin and louiten signify the cro-
codile, has been maintained by several writers of au-
thority. See Harmer's Observ. v. 4 ; Bochart's
Hieroz.; Sheuchzer's Physica Sacra; Scott on Job;
Durell, Parkhurst, and others.

The principal passages in which the term occurs in
this sense, are the following :

Jobvii. 12,

" Am I a sea, or a crocodile (tenin), that thou settest a watch
over me ?

Harmer so explains it, Observ. v. 4, p. 286, and remarks
that the Egyptians watch the crocodile with great at-
tention, to prevent its doing mischief.
Jobiii, 8,

" Let them execrate it, who corse the (natal) day
Of those who are about to rouse up the crocodile (louiten)/'

Which was almost sure to be attended with immediate
and horrid destruction. See Job xli. 8, 9, 10,
Isa. xxvii. 1,

" In that day shall Jehovah punish with his sword,
His well-tempered, great, and strong sword,
Leviathan the rigid serpent, .

Leviathan the winding serpent,
And shall slay the crocodile (tenin) that is in the sea."

Isa. li. 9,

" Awake, awake, clothe thyself with strength, O arm of Je-
hovah,

Awake, as in the days of old, the ancient generations ;
Art thou not the same that smote Rahab, that wounded the
crocodile (tenin)?

CROCODILE. 109

In allusion to God's victory over Pharaoh, as appears
from the 10th verse.

Ezek. xxix. 3,

" Thus saith the Lord Jehovah.
Lo, I am against thee, Pharaoh, king of Egypt,
The great crocodile (tenin), that lieth in the midst of his

rivers,
That saith, My rivers are mine own, and I have made them

for myself,"

Pharaoh, elsewhere called Hophra, and by Hero-
dotus, Apries, is supposed to be meant here, of whom
that historian affirms, 1. 2, 169, " This is said to
have been the persuasion of Apries, that no god was
able to deprive him of his kingdom;" language which
well agrees with the vain boasting used above.

When he says rivers in the plural, he probably re-
fers to the seven mouths of the Nile, to the streams
which emptied themselves into it, and the channels or
canals that were cut from it.

Ezek. xxxii. 2,

" Say unto Pharaoh, king of Egypt,
Thou art like a lion among the nations,
Thou art as a crocodile (tenin) in the seas,
And breakest forth in thy rivers,
And troublest the waters with thy feet, and foulest thy rivers."

From these and other passages, it appears that the
term which our English translators render " dragon,"
is applied, not merely to the serpent tribe, but to any
large or ferocious creature, which in its form or qua-
lities resembles the serpent, such as the crocodile of
the Nile.

In Psalm Ixxiv. 13, where Asaph says,

" Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength,
Thou didst break the heads of the crocodiles (tenim) in the
waters,"

110 CROCODILE*

there is a plain allusion to the destruction of the
power and host of Pharaoh at the Red Sea. To which
we may also refer Ps. Ixviii. 30, where, instead of
" Rebuke the company of spearmen," read, "Rebuke
the wild beast of the reed," i. v. the crocodile, which
lurks among the reeds of the Nile, and is a common
figure of the kings of Egypt.

The crocodile, then, is the symbol of Egypt, and
appears as such on Roman coins. In Scheuchzer's
Physica Sacra may be seen a medal, with Julius Cae-
sar's head on one side, and on the reverse a crocodile,
with this inscription :

" ^EGYKTO CAPTA," i. e. Egypt taken.

There is also a coin of Augustus, representing a cro-
codile chained to a palm tree, with the inscription
" Got. NEM.," in memory of Egypt being taken by
Augustus after Antony.

A crocodile fastened with a chain to a palm-tree, is
to be seen on ancient coins, with the incription COL.
MG. i. e. Colonia JSgyptus. On the other side are
two human heads, of which one looks to the east, or-
namented with a naval crown, the letters above are
Imp.) where by the crocodile is signified Egypt, and
Imp. is Imperator, or Augustus. The two heads are
those of Augustus and Agrippaj of whom Virgil says,

" Tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona."

When the painter Nealces, whom Pliny mentions,
wished to paint the naval engagement of the Egyp-
tians and Persians, which took place in the Nile, he
described that by a hieroglyphic, which he could not
accomplish by art. He drew a young ass drinking
on the shore, and a crocodile lying in wait for it.

CROCODILE. Ill

But since Egypt, in prophetic language, is a type
of the antichristian power, which is spiritually called
Egypt, in Rev.xi. 8, we may, without impropriety,
extend several of these Old Testament references, and
apply them to the character, language, and future des-
tinies of that power.

In Rev. xiii. 1, Antichrist is compared to a "beast
rising up out of the sea," in allusion to the crocodile,
which is amphibious.

For a more particular description of the crocodile,
see Job, chap, xli., and Bochart's commentary ; also
Norden's Travels, Hasselquist's Voyages, Harrier's
Observations, 4th vol., and Sir George Staunton's
Embassy to China, vol. 1.

That the crocodile was anciently, among the Egyp-
tians, a symbol of the sun, appears from its figure on
the throne of Isis, as has been shewn by several au-
thors, and agrees with what Jamblichus writes on the
Egyptian mysteries, and Eusebius, in his Praeparatio
Evang. lib. 3, cap. 3.

Among the Indians on the Malabar coast, croco-
diles were accounted the ministers or avengers of the
divine justice. And the boats of the Siamese, in
which they carry out their dead, exhibit the figure of a
crocodile.

Lucian, Philo, and Horapollo represent the croco-
dile to have been the emblem of craft, malice, and
impudence ; and Clemens Alexandrinus attributes to
it the latter quality, especially in his Stromata, lib. 5.

Bochart and others maintain, that Peroe, or Pha-
raoh, in the ancient language of Egypt, signifies
" Crocodile ;" while Josephus and PfehTer say, that
it properly means " King," or " my King," which,

112 CROCODILE.

however, appears doubtful, since we often find in
Scripture the title of king annexed to Pharaoh, which
in that case would be a vain tautology. It may be
remarked, that pero, in Hebrew, among its other
meanings, has that of " starting aside or apostatizing
from the true religion and worship ;" in which case,
Pharaoh may be considered as equivalent to apostate.
That crocodiles were formerly objects of worship,
on account , of the fear entertained of them by the
common people, is well known. See Julian de Ani-
mal, lib. 10, cap. 21 ; Diodorus Siculus, lib. 1, p. 52 ;
Strabo, Herodotus, and other authors. Juvenal also
has this passage :

. " Quis nescit Volusi Bith ynice, qualia demena
./Egyptus portenta colat ? crocodilon adorat."

Lib. 4. Sat. 15.

Daubuz says, the crocodile was called by the Ara-
bians Pharaoh, and was held by the Egyptians as the
symbol of all mischief. And therefore Typho being,
in their ^belief, the author of all evils, was supposed to
have transformed himself into a crocodile or dragon.
So that the principle of evil, or Typho, was, in the
symbolical character, represented by a crocodile or
dragon, and under this symbol was worshipped.
Agreeably whereto, in the Chaldean theology, the
principle of evil was called Arimanius, L e. the crafty
serpent.

It is the passage in Ezek. xxix. 3, as well as the
history itself, in the book of Exodus, which Milton
has probably in view, Par. Lost, b. 12, 1. 190 :

" Thus with ten wounds,
The river dragon tamed, at length submits," &c.

CROCODILE.... ..CROWN.

B'Herbelot cites an eastern poet, who, celebrating
the prowess of a most valiant Persian prince, said,

" He was dreadful as a lion in the field,

And not less terrible in the water as a crocodile.""

A comparison which agrees remarkably with that
used by Ezekiel, ch, xxxii. 2, already quoted. The
phrase used there of " breaking forth," may refer to
the act of the crocodile when he bursts above the wa-
ter to seize his prey ; or, as Gussetius supposes, rais-
ing the head above the water, for the purpose of
breathing more freely "ut respiratione se reficiant."

In Isaiah xxvii. 1, Leviathan is called " the straight
or rigid serpent," the crocodile having a remarkably
straight, rigid, and inflexible body, so that -he cannot
easily turn himself in pursuing his prey.

CROWN. In Hebrew, ceter, whence the Greek,
xuiat^is, a diadem.

Diadems are constantly the symbols of an imperial
or auto-cratorical power, extending itself over all
sorts of power, civil and ecclesiastical.

ZTS<PV, translated crowns, are symbols of an infe-
rior, feudatory, or delegated power ; so that there is
the same difference between them and diadems as
there is between a royal or imperial crown and a co-
ronet ; and therefore the crown or coronet is by the
Indian interpreter, c. 247, explained of the second
person to the king, or the prime minister of state.
So that the crown or coronet is the symbol of judicial
power and dominion inferior to the supreme.

And it is also the symbol of victory and reward, it
being customary for conquerors to be crowned.

The mitre of the high priest was called by the an-
cient Greeks tiara, cidaris, and sometimes diadema ;

H

114 CROWN.,... .CUP.

they wore a sort of linen turban, commonly white ;
and such were the diadems of kings, which Ammianus
calls Fasciolam candidam, Regies Majestatis insigne.
This linen covering of the head, with the plate of
gold, on which " Holiness to the Lord" was inscribed,
is called the Holy Crown. So that a turban, with a
gold ornament, in the language of the scripture, is a
crown of gold; Lev. viii. 9-

Rev. xix. 12, " On his head were many crowns,"
to shew his numerous conquests and large empire.

Among the ancients, the crown was a symbol of
dignity and authority of comeliness and ornament
and sometimes of love. See Lucian, Euripides, and
Anacreon, who use it in these various senses.

The Magi used to wear a tiara, as we learn from
Pausanias, Eliac, lib. 5, " But a Magus entering into
the temple, and having placed some dry wood upon
the fire, covered his head with a tiara, and invoked
some deity, I know not whom." Strabo mentions the
like, lib. 15.

That ambassadors wore something of the kind ap-
pears from Claudian :

" Missique rogatum

Foedera Persarum proceres, cum patre sedentem
Hac quondam videre domo, positaque tiara
Submisere genus."

The Church is finely compared to a crown by the
prophet Isaiah, Ixii. 3,

" And thou shalt be a beautiful crown in the hand of Jehovah ;
And a royal diadem in the grasp of thy God."

CUP, is used as a symbol in Scripture in various
.senses.

It is employed to describe the practices of the false

CUP. 115

church, in Rey. xvii. 4, " Having a golden cup in her
hand," denoting the enticing means and specious pre-
tences by which the antichristian church allures peo-
ple to idolatry, particularly by sensuality, luxury, and
affluence. There is an allusion to the philtres, or
love potions, which lewd women used to prepare for
the purposes of debauchery, and of inflaming the pas-
sions of their paramours. The cup is said to be " full
of abominations and filthiness of her fornication."
With this agrees the prophecy of Jeremiah, .ch. li. 7,
where Babylon is called " a golden cup in the hand
of Jehovah ;" i. e. she was a splendid instrument of
vengeance ordained by God against the neighbouring
nations; and as all these had suffered by her, all are
represented as ready to glory over her, or to. rejoice
when her turn of suffering came. That a cup is the
symbol of idolatry and its rites, appears also from
Paul's expression in 1 Cor. x. 21, "Ye cannot drink
of the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons." In
the heathen sacrifices, as Macknight observes, the
priests, before they poured the wine upon the victim,
tasted it themselves ; then carried it to the offerers,
and to those who came with them, that they also
might taste it, as joining in the sacrifice, and receiv-
ing benefit from it. Thus Virgil, Mn. 8, 273,

" Quare agite, O juvenes," &c.

" For these deserts, and this high virtue shewn,
Ye warlike youths, your heads with garlands crown,
Fill high the goblets with a sparkling flood,
And with deep draughts invoke our common god."

DKYJDEN.

Wine, mixed with bitter ingredients, was usually
given to malefactors when they were going to be put

lie CUP,

to death. And therefore, by a metonymy of the ad-
junct, the mixed bitter cup of wine is the symbol of
torment or death, as in Psalm Ixxv. 8,

" In the hand of Jehovah there is a cup, and the wine is turbid;
It is full of a mixed liquor, and he poureth out of it,
Verily the dregs thereof all the ungodly of the earth shall
wring them out, and drink them."

But nowhere is this image of the cup of God's wrath
presented with more force and sublimity than in
Isaiah li. 17, &c., where Jerusalem is represented as
staggering under the effects of it, destitute of that as-
sistance which she might expect from her own chil-
dren, not one of them being able to support or lead
her.

Plato has an idea something like this, which Lowth
refers to in his note.-

As the evil which happens to men is the effect of
God's justice and severity, and the good which hap-
pens to them is the effect of his bounty and goodness,
therefore, in the sacred writings, the one is represent-
ed by a cup ofiordth, and the other under the symbol
of a cup of salvation (Ps. cxvi. 13), and of drinking
of the river of pleasures (Ps. xxxvi. 8), at the right
hand of God (Ps. xvi. 11).

So Homer places two vessels at the threshold of
Jupiter, one of .good, the other of evil ; he gives to
some a potion mixed of both, to others from the evil
vessel only. D. 24, line 527, &c.

" Two urns by Jove's high throne have ever stood,
The source of eril one, and one of good ;
From thence the cup of mortal man he fills,
Blessings to these, to those distributes ills:
Tp most he mingles both : The wretch decreed
To taste the bad unmix'd, is curs'd indeed :

CUPr 117

Pursued by wrongs, by meagre famine driven, .
He wanders, outcast both of earth and heaven.
The happiest taste not happiness sincere,
But find the cordial draught is dash'd with, care."

When our Saviour asks James and John, whether
they were able to drink of the cup which he was to
drink of, Matt. xx. 22, he means, whether they had
resolution and patience to undergo the like sufferings
and afflictions as his Father had allotted for him.
And in the like sense he prays, Matt. xxvi. 39, " O
my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me."

The image of a cup as a portion, seems to have
been borrowed from the ancient custom of the master
of the feast appointing to each of the guests his cup,
i. e. his kind and measure of liquor ; as in the follow-
ing passage from the Iliad, 1. 4, 261.

" For this, in banquets, when the generous bowls
Restore our blood, and raise the warriors' souls,
Though all the rest with stated rules are bound,
Unmix'di unmeasured, are thy goblets crown'd."

God says to Jeremiah, ch. xxv. 15, " Take the cup
of the wine of this wrath from my hand, and tender
it to all the nations to drink, unto whom I shall send
thee," &c., meaning thereby those heavy judgments
which he was about to inflict on the objects of his
displeasure. And the prophet, who announced them,
is considered as acting the part of a cup-bearer, car-
rying the cup round to those who were appointed to
drink of it, the effects of which were to appear in the
intoxication, that is, in the terror and desolation that
should prevail among them.

It is not to be imagined that the prophet went
round in person to all the nations and kings here enu-
merated, but either that he did so in a vision, or else

118 CUP-

that he actually did what is figuratively designed,
that is, he publicly announced the judgments of God
severally against them, as we find in chapters xlvi. to
li. inclusive, and which the Seventy have introduced
in this place.

Rev. xiv. 10, " The same shall, drink* of the wine
of the wrath of God, which is poured out without
mixture, into the cup of his indignation."

It has been already remarked, that it was usual to
give malefactors a cup of wine before going to exe-
cution; but sometimes a cup was given them, in
which some strong poison had been infused, on pur-
pose to cause their death. Such was the well-known
.mode of dispatching Socrates. Grotius thinks the
words without mixture, intimate that the poisonous
ingredients were infused in pure unmixed wine, to
take a stronger tincture, and become a more deadly
poison.

So in Zech. xii. 2,

* Behold I will make Jerusalem
A cup of trembling to all the people round about."

i. e. An inebriating and stupifying potion of the
strongest liquors and drugs. Jerusalem shall strike
the nations with dread and astonishment.

On Habak. ii. 16, Grotius observes, that verses 15.
and 16. contain an allegory. The Chaldeans gave to
'the neighbouring nations the cup of idolatry and de-
ceitful alliance, and in return they received from Je-
hovah the cup of his fury.

Rev. xviii. 6, " In the cup which she hath filled, fill
to her double?

This is agreeable to the Jewish law of Retaliation

CUP. 119

and Restitution, which in some cases enjoined double
punishment or damages. See Exod. xxii. 4.

The seven vials filled with the seven last plagues^
are properly bowls or cups. That this emblem was
not unknown to profane authors, appears from the
writings of Plautus and Aristophanes, as has been
shewn by several.

We read in Jeremiah xvi. 7> of the " cup of con-
solations," in allusion to the funeral customs of the
Jews, which, Sir John Chardin tells us, is still ob-
served by the oriental Christians, of sending provi-
sions to the house of the deceased, where healths were
also drunk to the survivors of the family, wishing
that the dead may have been the victims for the sins
of the family. The same is practised among the
Moors. Of the Jewish method, we read thus in Be-
rach, Hieros. fol. 6 : " Ten cups were drunk at the
house of the deceased ; two before the funeral banquet,
five amidst the banquet, and three after it was
finished. Of these three last, one was intended for
thanksgiving, another as an office of kindness, and the
third for the consolation of the mourners. That the
same custom prevailed among the Romans, is shewn
by Spencer, De Leg. Hebr. 1. 4, c. 9- Something
similar seems to be hinted at in the closing lines of
the Iliad:

** All Troy then moves to Priam's court again,
A solemn, silent, melancholy train :
Assembled there, from pious toil they rest,
And sadly shared the last sepulchral feast."

The cup was an emblem of capital punishment, be-
cause, among the ancients, it was usual to inflict
death, by .presenting to the condemned a cup. of

120 CUP BARENESS.

hemlock or other poison, as was the case of Socra-
tes. And hence we hear our Lord saying, " The cup
which my Father hath given me, shall I not drink it ?'
And hence that expression in the Psalms, " There is
a cup in the hands of the Lord all the wicked of
the earth shall drink of it."

DARKNESS. As light is the symbol of joy and
safety, so, on the contrary, darkness is the symbol of
misery and adversity.

It is thus used in Jer. xiii. 16,

" Give ye glory to Jehovah your God, ,

Before it grows dark,

(that is, before the time of darkness or distress comes on,)
And before your feet stumble upon the mountains of
gloominess."

Meaning those solitary and gloomy mansions at which
when "the dead" arrive, they may, by a poetical
image, be supposed to stumble, because of the dark-
ness, and to fall so as never to rise more. Compare
Ps. xliv. 20, cxliii. 3, Job xviii. 6.

The prophet Isaiah makes use of much the same
images, ch. lix. 9, 10, where he represents the people
as complaining of the wretchedness of their situation :

" We look for light, but behold darkness ;
For brightness, but we walk in obscurity.
"We grope for the wall like the blind,
Even as those that are eyeless do we grope ;
We stumble at midday as in the dusk,
In desolate places, like the dead."

See also Ezek. xxx. 18, xxxiv. 12 ; Isa. viii. 22, ix. 1.

Artemidorus, examining the various significations
of the air, as to its qualities, says, " A gloomy, dark,
overclouded air, signifies ill success, or want of power,
and sorrow arising thereupon."

Horace has the following simile, Ode. 4. 4, 40 :

DARKNESS. 121

. - Pulcher fugatis ;

Hie dies Latio tenebris."

In Amos iv. 13, " That maketh the morning dark-
ness/' there is supposed to be an allusion to the black
clouds and smoke attending earthquakes'. "Des
nuages noirs et epais (says a French writer) sont or-
dinairement les avant coureurs de ces funestes catas-
trophes."

By " a day of darkness," in Joel ii. 2, the prophet
intends to set forth the greatness of the people's dis-
tress by the sudden calamity of the locusts.

We find Cicero employing the same figurative lan-
guage : " Quid tandem, turn illis reipublicse tenebris,
ccecisque uubibus et procellis, cum senatum e guber-
naculis dejecisses," &c. (Pro domo sua.)

The following allegory, under which the fall of
Pharaoh is threatened, is an instance of the manner
of applying the figure, by which darkness is made to
represent calamity, a topic on which the Hebrew
writers give the full reins to poetical boldness : Ezek.
xxxii. 7, 8. .

" I will cover the heavens when I quench thee,

And I will clothe the stars thereof with black ;

I will cover the sun with a cloud,

And the moon shall not give her light.

All the shining lights of the heavens will I clothe with black

over thee,
. And I will set darkness upon thy land,

Saith the Lord Jehovah."

Darkness is represented as the accompaniment of
idolatrous rites. Ezek. viii. 12, "Hast thou seen, O
son of man, what the elders of the house of Israel
do in the dark, every man in the chambers of his
imagery ?"

122 DARKNESS,

Milton refers to this in his Paradise Lost, b. 1, 455,

" By the vision led,
His eye survey'd the dark idolatries
Of alienated Judah."

Darkness of the sun, moon, and stars, is an induc-
tion to denote a general darkness or deficiency in the
Government, as in Isa. xiii. 10; Ezek. xxxii. 7, above
quoted; Joel ii. 10, 31.

And the Oneirocritics, in ch. 167, explain the
eclipses of the sun and moon, of obscurity, affliction,
oppression, and the like, according to the subject.
- Eph. v. 11, " The works of darkness."
. The apostle calls the heathen mysteries works of
darkness, because the impure actions which the ini-
tiated performed in them, under the sanction of reli-
gious rites, were done in the night time ; and by the
secrecy in which they were acted, were acknowledged
by the perpetrators to be evil. (Macknight.)

The term " outer darkness," which occurs in Matt,
viii. 12, and in other passages, is well explained by the
learned Du Veil : ." Utitur Christus hac loquendi for-
mula, quia agit hie de regno coelorum sub similitudi-
ne coenae convivialis, quae quia de nocte fit, solet co-
pioso taedarum lumine celebrari. Itaque qui in coena-
culo sunt, in magno sunt lumine ; qui extra, in mag-
nis versantur tenebris."

The state of the dead is often represented in Scrip-
ture under the image of darkness. Thus Job x. 21,

'* Before I go whence I shall not return,
Even to the land of darkness, and the shadow of death,
A land of darkness, as darkness itself,
And of the shadow of death, without any order,
-- . And where the light is as darkness; 1 '

DARKNESS. 123

: And Job xvii. 13,

" If I wait, the grave is mine house,
I have made my bed in the darkness."

Heathen writers employ the same image: Thus
Lucan, 1. 6, v. 712,

" Non in tartareo latitantem poscimus antro
Adsuetamque diu tenebris, modo luce fugata,
Descendentem animam."

Whence Callimachus inquires of the kingdom of Plu-
to, Epigr. 14,

T( Te vsgds ; TToXu O-XD'TO;.
** What is there below? much darkness."

Darkness is occasionally the emblem of ignorance;
and the fitness of the one to represent the other is
sufficiently obvious. Isa. ix. 2,

" The people that walked in darkness
Have seen a great light."

Isa. Ix. 2,

" Behold darkness shall cover the earth,
And a thick vapour the nations,"

Matt. vi. 23,

" If the light which is in thee be darkness,
How great is that darkness !"

See Campbell's note on this passage.

2 Cor. iv. 6, " God who commanded the light to
shine out of darkness, hath shined into our hearts," &c.

John in. 19,

" Light hath come into the world,
But men have loved darkness rather than light,
Because their deeds were evil."

Juvenal has something like this, I. 2, v. 239 :

" Quicunque mails vitam maculaverit actis,
Ad tenebras pavidas refugit, ne lumine claro
Sordida pollute pateant contagio mentis."

124 DAB,KNESS.....;DARNEL DAY.

Darkness is sometimes the emblem of captivity:
thus, Isa. xlvii. 5, .

" Sit thou in silence, go into darkness, O daughter of the

Chaldeans; .

For thou shalt no longer be called the lady of the kingdoms."

Lam. iii. 6,

" In the. midst of darkness hath he caused me to dwell,
As those that have been dead of long time."

Cicero uses similar expressions, Orat. 10, in Verr.,
" Cum esset in carcere, in tenebris, in squalore, in
sordibus tyrannjcis interdictis tuis, pari exacta aetate."

It is possible, that there may be a reference to the
phrase " outer darkness" in that passage, Rev. xxii.
15, where it is said, " Without,"*, e. beyond the new
or mystical Jerusalem, "there are dogs, poisoners,
whoremongers, murderers, and idolaters." But it is
more likely that allusion is there made to the Outer
Court of the Gentiles. See under Dog.

DARNEL. The darnel or lolium, improperly call-
ed tares in our version, was anciently the symbol of
corrupt manners, as Pierus mentions in his Treatise
de Hieroglyphicis, p. 405, " Morum enim corrupto-
rum id omnino indicium est," &c. " Envious men,"
says Plutarch, "are as useless to a state, as darnel is
to wheat." And the epithet given to this plant by
Virgil is well known :

" Grandia saepe quibus mandavimus hordea sulcis,
Infelix lolium, et steriles dominantur avonse;"

DAY, as the time of light, and as opposed to
darkness or night, is the symbol of a time of pros-
perity.

A day is often used both in sacred and profane
writings, Jbr an indeterminate portion of time. The

DAY, 125

day of temptation in the wilderness was forty years.
The day of the Lord is the time of judgment. And
Paul, speaking of men's judgment, 1 Cor. iv. 3, calls
it y0g7r<vu 'fl/KEgcc, or the day of man, in opposition, as
it should seem, to the day of the Lord. So " Opini-
onum commenta delet dies," as in Cicero. And it
has been observed, that a good rule to judge what
portion of time may be designed by such indeter-
minate expressions, is to consider what is necessary
or proportional to the season spoken of.

" The day of the Lord." This expression is used
in the Scriptures to signify a time of calamity and
distress, when God pours out his judgments upon any
nation or people as a punishment for their sins. See
Joel ii. 11 ; Isaiah ii. 12, &c.

In the New Testament it generally signifies the
day of judgment, because God will then execute his
final judgment upon all impenitent and ungodly sin-
ners. See Jude v. 6 ; Rev. vi. 17.

In Joel i. 15, it signifies the time during which
God suffered the locusts to infect the country of
Judea ; which produced the most dreadful scarcity,
and turned the land into a barren wilderness. These
locusts were accounted the most dreadful plague ; in-
somuch, that those who were instrumental to deliver
any nation from them, were repaid with divine ho-
nours. Thus the Oetians named Hercules Corno-
pion, from cqrriops, a locust, and worshipped him un-
der that character, because he drove away the locusts
from them. (Chandler on Joel.)
See more on Day under Time.
" That day," means that great day of the Lord,

126 DEATH.

the day of judgment, as before mentioned. See
Matt. vii. 22 ; Luke x. 12 ; 2 Thess. i. 10 : 2 Tim.
i. 18 ; iv. 8. But in Heb. x. 25, the phrase seems
to import the day of the destruction of the Jewish
state.

DEATH is the destruction of the subject spoken
of, according to its nature, even though it have no
natural life ; that is, in such a manner that it cannot
any more act as such.

So in Rom. vii. 8, " Without the law sin is dead ;"
i. e. without the law sin does not exert its power.
And on the other hand, as it is said there, v. 9, " Sin
revived and I died ;" i. e. sin got strength to act, and
I lost my power to resist : I was not the same man
as before ; sin destroyed my power.

So of a nation, Amos ii. 2, " Moab shall die with
tumult," the meaning being, that the king and
government thereof shall lose their power, and the
nation be brought into subjection and slavery.

So Cicero, when banished, called himself dead, an
image, and the like, (lib. J, ep. 3. ad. 2, Fr.)

And so the ancient philosophers called vicious per-
sons unable, through ill habits, to exert any virtuous
act, dead men. (Simpl. in Epict. p. 2.)

On the contrary, to live, is to be in a power to act,
acting and living being, says Artemidorus, (1. 4. c.
42,) analogical to each other.

And so in Heb. iv. 21, 2v, quick or alive, signifies
active or powerful the word evsgyiij, powerful,, being
joined to it, to shew the meaning.

Death is finely personified in Jer. ix. 21 ,

" For 'death hath climbed up through our windows,
It hath entered into our palaces ;

DEATH. 127

It hath at once cut off the children from the street, . .
And destroyed the young men from the broad places."

And in Lam. i. 20,

" Abroad a sword destroyeth, at home as it were death ;"
meaning the pestilence death as it were acting in
propria persona ; and not by the instrumentality of
another, as when a person is slain by the sword. So
our great poet in his description of a lazar-house .:

" Despair

Tended the sick, busiest from couch to couch ;
And over them, triumphant, Death his dart
Shook, but delay'd to strike."

PAR. LOST, B. 11, 489.

As the word death, when applied to the animal na-
ture, properly signifies a dissolution or failure of all
its powers and functions ; so, when applied to the
spiritual nature, or souls of men, as Parkhurst ob-
serves, it denotes a correspondent disorder therein, a
being cut off from a communication with the divine
light and spirit, a being spiritually dead, dead in
trespasses and sins. Compare Eph. ii. 1, 3 ; Col. ii.
13 ; Rom. viii. 6 ; Eph. v. 14 ; John v. 24, 25 ; Jude,
verse 12.

The " Second Death," Rev. ii. 11, is so called in
respect to the natural or temporal, as coming after it,
and implies everlasting punishment ; Rev. xxi. 8.

By a Hebraism, the plague or pestilence is some-
times called death. See Grotius on Matt. xxiv. 7,
also Jer. ix. 21, before quoted, and xviii. 21, and xv.
2. It occurs also in Rev. vi. 8, with which compare
Ezek. xiv. 21 ; Rev. ii. 23 ; xviii. 8.

" Shadow of Death." This image (says Blayney
on Jer. ii. 6,) was undoubtedly borrowed from those
dusky caverns and holes among the rocks, which the

128 DEATH......DESART.

Jews ordinarily chose for their burying places, where
death seemed to hover continually, casting over them
his broad shadows. Sometimes, indeed, I believe
nothing more is intended by it than to denote a
dreariness and gloom like that which reigns in those
dismal mansions. . But in other places it respects the
perils and dangers of the situation. Thus. Ps. xxiii.
4. " Yea, though I walk through the valley of the
shadow of death, I will fear no evil." And again
Ps. Ixiv. 19 But in Jer. ii. 6, over and above the
foregoing allusions, "the land of the shadow of
death," seems to intend the grave itself, which the
wilderness actually proved to all the individuals of
the Children of Israel that entered into it, Caleb and
Joshua only excepted, whose lives were preserved by
a special providence. See also Jerem. xiii. 16* and
Isa. lix. 9 10, where the same images are employed.

DESART or WILDERNESS. A place remote
from the society and commerce of men ; the symbol
of temptation, solitude, persecution, desolation, and
the like.

Thus in Isa. xxvii. 10,

" The strongly fortified city shall be desolate,
An habitation forsaken, and deserted as a wilderness."

And in ch. xxxiii. 9>

" The land mourneth, it languisheth,
Lebanon is put to shame, it withereth,
Sharon is become like a desart,
, Bashan and Carmel are stripped of their beauty."

And thus ./Eneas in Virgil, to shew .the misery of his
condition, mentions his wandering unknown and
needy in a wilderness, J2n. b. 1, v. 388.

" Ipse ign'ot us, egens, Libya deserta peragro."

DESABT. 129

But a wilderness may also be a symbol of good,
when it denotes a hiding place from enemies, as
David often found it ; and as the Israelites did in
the persecution of Antiochus, when the Gentiles had
profaned the sanctuary.

Desarts are sometimes emblematic of spiritual
things, as in Isa. xli. 19,

*' In the wilderness I will give the cedar,
The acacia, the myrtle, and the tree producing oil,
I will plant the fir-tree in the desart,
The pine and the box together."

So in ch. xxxii. 15,

** Till the spirit from on high be poured out upon us,
And the wilderness become a fruitful field,
And the fruitful field be esteemed a forest,
And judgment shall dwell in the wilderness,
And in the fruitful field shall reside righteousness ;"

meaning nations in which there was no knowledge of
God, or of divine truth, shall be enlightened and
made to produce fruit unto holiness.

Desarts are generally pathless. In reference to
this Isaiah says, ch. xxxv. 8,

" And a highway shall be there,
And it shall be called the way of holiness :
No unclean person shall pass through it,
But he himself shall be with them, walking in the way."

He himself, t. e. God, who shall dwell among them,
and set them an example that they should follow his
steps.

The desart is the symbol of the Jewish church and
people ; Isaiah xl. 3,

" A voice crieth in the wilderness."
The Jewish church, to which John was sent to an-
nounce the coming of Messiah, was at that time in a

i

130 DESART.

barren and desart condition, unfit without reforma-
tion for the reception of her king. See the whole of
Lowth's note in loco. See also Ezek. xlvii. 8.

The desart seems also to be the symbol of the anti-
ehristian empire ; Rev. xvii. 3.

It was in the wilderness that John saw the vision
of the woman clothed in purple, and since this woman
denotes mystic Babylon, the wilderness may be un-
derstood to be the figure of her power.

It is of the conversion of the Gentiles the prophet
speaks, when he says, Isa. xxxv. 1,

" The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them,
The desart shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."

The solitude of the desart is a subject often refer-
red to : thus Job xxxviii. 26,

" To cause it to rain on the earth, where no man is,
Oh the wilderness, wherein there is no man."

Jer. ix. 2,

" Oh that I had in the wilderness a traveller's lodge,
That I might leave my people, and go from them !"

By a travellers lodge, meaning some cave or hut,
which some one before him may have erected for a
temporary shelter.

Horace describes the desart, as " terrain domibus
negatam," and elsewhere,

" Sive facturus (iter) per inhospitalem
Caucasum ;"

and Properlius, 1. 1, el. 10,

" Hsec certe deserta loca et taciturna querenti,
Et vacuum zephyri possidet aura nemus,
Hie licet occultos proferre impune dolores ;"

that is, without any one's presence or knowledge.
The desart is the abode of evil spirits, or at least

DESART. 131

their occasional . resort. See Matt, xii, 43 ; Luke xi.
24. The heathen also held this opinion, witness
Avian, fab. 29,

" Hunc nemorum custos feitor miseratus in antro
Exceptum Satyrus continuisse suo ;"

and Virgil, Mn. 6, v. 27,

" Turn vero in numerum faunos ferasque videres
: Ludere,"&c. .

The Shedim or daemons of Scripture appear to
have been the satyrs and fauns of the Gentiles, whom
the Israelites idolatrously served. Deut. xxxii. 17 ;
Ps. cvh 37- Shedim being derived from shed to lay
waste or desolate. See Isa. xxxiv. 14, and Jer. 1. 38,
39. And Maimonides, speaking of the Zabians, says,
" They relate^ in their books, that on account of the
wrath of Mars, desart and desolate places are without
water and trees, and that horrid demons inhabit those
places."

Matt. xiii. 43, is thus paraphrased by a foreign
writer : " The devil being expelled from the Jews,
passed over to the Gentiles, but when by the light of
the Gospel he was driven from thence, and found no
resting place, he returned to the blinded Jews, and
took possession of them more than before."

The desart is described as a place of great perils
through robbers and assassins. See Lam. iv. 19,

" They laid wait for us in the wilderness."
Acts xxi. 38,

" Art not thou that Egyptian, who leddest out into the wil-
derness
Four thousand men that were murderers."

See Josephus, Antiq. 1. xx. 6. And Paul, 2 Cor.
xi. 26, mentions "perils in the wilderness."

132 DESART DEW.

To the ; primitive Christians, the world was every
where a wilderness of this kind ; hence they are called
pilgrims and strangers, who had no abiding city.
And by the heathen they were often classed with and
treated as robbers, according to the inscription which
Scaliger cites. Neroni Claudio Caesari Aug. Pontif.
Max. ob provinciam latronibus et his qui novam
generi humano superstitionem inculcarant purgatam ;
i.e.to Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus, high priest, on
account of his having cleared the province of robbers,
and of those who taught mankind a new superstition.

DEW. The moisture which, arising, .from the
earth, refreshes, invigorates, and promotes the growth
of vegetables, and beautifies them with its drops, as
with so many shining pearls. But when the sun
grows hot, it is quickly exhaled, and vanishes away.
During the months of May, June, July, and August
in Palestine, not a single cloud is to be seen ; but,
during the night, the earth is moistened by a copious
dew, which, in the sacred volume, is frequently made
a symbol of the Divine goodness. Thus :
Gen. xxvii. 28,

"Therefore may God give thee of the dew of heaven,
And the fatness of the earth,
And plenty of corn and wine ?"

And Gen. xlix, 25, where the " blessing from above"
is equivalent with dew.

See also Deut. xxxiii. 13; Job xxix. 19; Micah
v. 7.

In Arabia Petraea the dews are so heavy as to wet
to the skin those who are exposed to them ; but as
soon as the sun arises, and the atmosphere becomes
a little wanned, the mists are quickly dispersed, aad

DEW. 133

the abundant moisture which the dews had commu-
nicated to the sands, is entirely evaporated. What
a forcible description is this of the transiently good
impressions felt by many, to which the prophet al-
ludes in Hosea vi. 4,

" What shall I do unto thee, O Ephraim ?
What shall I do unto thee, O Judah ?
For your goodness is as a morning cloud,
.And as early dew which passeth away."

Allusion is also made to the refreshing nature of
the dews of Palestine.
Hosea xiv. 5,

" I will be as the dew to Israel,
He shall blossom as the lily,
And he shall strike his roots as Lebanon."

Dew is the symbol of the blessed effects of Divine
teaching, which is equally silent, gentle, and refresh-
ing. Thus Deut. xxxii. 2,

** My doctrine shall drop as the rain,
My speech shall distil as the dew,
Like showers upon the tender herb,
Like a copious dew on the grass ;"

L e. my doctrine shall have the same effect upon your
hearts, as the dew has upon the earth, it shall make
them soft, pliable, and fruitful. In 2 Peter ii. 17,
false teachers are called wells without water.

And God, speaking by Isaiah of his vineyard, says,
Isa. xxvii. 3,

" It is 1 Jehovah that keep it,
I will water it every moment,
I will take care of it by night,
And by day I will keep guard over it."

In Amos vii. 16, to " drop the word'* is to pro-
phesy ; the metaphor being taken from the symbol of

134 DEW.

dew, ; because prophecy is the gracious effect of God's
favour.

Homer, ;who appears to have been a careful ob-
server of nature, thus describes the early morn, as in
Pope's version.

" Aurora now, fair daughter of the dawn,
Sprinkled with rosy steps the dewy lawn."

And in Iliad b. 23, 1. 597 he compares the exulta-
tion of joy in a man's mind to the morning dew re-
viving the corn.

" Joy swells his soul ; as when the vernal grain
Lifts the green ear above the springing plain,
The fields their vegetable life renew,
And laugh and glitter with the morning dew."

The Oneirocritics explain the symbol of rain or
dew, of all manner of good things.

As the bestowing of dew was a blessing, so the
withholding of it was a curse. Hence David thus
speaks of the scene of Saul and Jonathan's death :

2 Sam. i. 21,

" Ye mountains of Gilboa,
On you be neither dew nor rain,
Nor fields affording oblations."

i. e.let your fields henceforth produce nothing worthy
to be offered to the Lord.

Dew, as consisting of innumerable drops, is some-
times the symbol of multitude : Thus

Psalm ex. 3,

" More than the dew from the womb of the morning
Shall be the dew of thy progeny."

Meaning, that converts to the gospel of Christ should
at some future period be very numerous. But it is
right to notice, that Dwell gives this passage a differ-
ent sense. Thus.:

DEW. 135

" I have brought thee forth out of the womb,
Before the morning brought on the dew."

i. e. God addressing the Messiah, adverts to the ex-
istence of the latter long before the creation of any
being.

Having examined the different versions minutely,
with a view to ascertain the genuine meaning of this
difficult passage, the following is the result, from
which it appears that renderings similar to that of Dr
Durell preponderate, but they can scarcely be said to
be warranted by the original.

Literal version of the Hebrew :

" More than the womb of the dawn,
The dew of thy progeny."

The Septuagint :

" In the splendors of thy holiness from the womb,
Before the morning star I begot thee."

Vulgate : The same as the Septuagint.
Aquila:

" Thou hast the dew of thy youth
From the womb, from the morning."

Symmachus:

Thy youth is as the morning dew."
Bootius:

" Thou hast shone like the morning ; from thy very birth,
Thy youth has been covered with dew."

Mudge:

'* Thy youth (meaning young men) shall be ready at thy hand,
As dew from the womb of the morning."

Parkhurst :

" More than (the dew from) the womb of the dawn,
- (Shall be) the dew of thy progeny."

So also Cocceius and Bishop Lowth,

136 DEW.

Pye Smith :

*' From the womb of the morning,
Thine shall be the dew of thy youth.

Kennicott : (on the authority of the Syriac and
Arabic) : ;

' In majesty and holiness from the womb ;
Before the morning star, I have begotten thee."

Le Cene :

" You have shone like the dawn from your birth,
Your infancy has been covered with dew."

When I said above, that renderings similar to Durell's
preponderate, I meant not in point of number, but in
point of value, since the Septuagint, the Vulgate,
Syriac, Arabic, are of more importance than modern
versions. But there seems to be something wanting
in the Hebrew original ; which it is now very diffi-
cult to supply. At present it conveys no meaning
whatever.

In another place, dew is made the symbol of bro-
therly love and harmony ; for though the drops are
many, they sometimes run together and coalesce, as
quicksilver is seen to do upon a smooth surface.
Thus, Psalm cxxxiii. 3,

*

" As the dew of Hennon,
That descended upon the mountains of Zion ;" (Sirion.)

a passage which has greatly embarrassed critics, to
account how the dew of Hennon could fall upon the
mountains of Zion, in Jerusalem, at the distance of
upwards of sixty miles. And hence our translators
try to overcome the difficulty by inserting the words
" and as the dew," and Durell renders it, upon the
dry hills, for so he affirms the word Zion is used in
Isa. xxv. 5, and xxxii. 2. Mudge imagines that Da-
vid, seeing the two summits at a distance, had joined

DEW. 137

them together in his description, without reference to
the interval between them. But the best interpreta-
tion seems to. be that of Dr Stukeley, in his History
of Abury, chap. 14, who corrects Zion into Sirion, as
being a mistake of some transcriber ; and this is jus-
tified by reference to Deut. iii. 9, where Moses says,
" which Hennon the Sidonians call Sirion." And
this mode of parallel is very common in the poetical
parts of Scripture.

The silent manner in which a man tries to overtake
his enemy by stealth, is beautifully likened to the
falling of the dew by Hushai, in 2 Sam. xvii. 12, " So
shall we come upon him in some place where he shall
be found, and we will light upon him as the dew fall-
eth on the ground."

The comparison of God's visitation of his people
to dew is remarkable in several passages; thus, Isa.
xxvi. 19,

" Thy dead shall live ; my deceased, they shall rise :
Awake and sing, ye that dwell in the dust!
For thy dew is as the dew of the dawn,
But the earth shall cast forth, as an abortion, the deceased
tyrants." LOWTH'S VERSION.

The Prophet here speaks of the captivity of Babylon
as of a state of death, and the deliverance of God's
people from their depression is explained by images
plainly taken from the resurrection of the dead, simi-
lar to what we find in Ezekiel, chap, xxxvii.

The residue of Jacob is beautifully compared to
dew in Micah v. 7>

" As the dew from Jehovah,
As the showers upon the grass,
Which tarrieth not for man,
Neither waiteth for the sons of men."

138 DEW......DOG.

The Jews, observes Newcome, contributed to spread
the knowledge of the one true God during their cap-
tivity. See Dan. iu 47, iii. 29, iv. 34, vi. 26. The
gospel .was preached by them when the Messiah ap-
peared, and it shall again be propagated by their fu-
ture glorious restoration ; Rom. xi. 12, 15.
See a similar passage in Zech. viii. 12,

*' For the seed shall be prosperous ;
The vine shall yield its fruit, .
And the ground shall yield its increase,
And the heavens shall yield their dew;
And I will cause the residue of this people
To possess all these things."

DOG, 'the symbol of uncleanness, immodest ac-
tions, apostasy ; also of the Gentile tribes generally,
whom the Jews despised, as being destitute of the
true knowledge, worship, and obedience of God ; as
living in impurity, and being without the pale of the
covenant.

The dog was declared to be unclean by the law of
Moses, and the term " dead dog" among the Jews
was expressive of the utmost contempt. See 1 Sam.
xxiv. 14, 2 Sam. ix. 8.

In Deut. xxiii. 18, dog seems to be used for a per-
son guilty of unnatural crimes. Such persons are
called "the abominable'' in Rev. xxi. 8, and their
doom is there pronounced. Such as resemble them
are excluded from the kingdom of heaven, Rev. xxii.
15, where there is an allusion to the outer Court of
the Gentiles, who were not admitted into the holy
place ; " without are dogs."

It has been objected to this view of Deut. xxiii. 1 8,
that legislators are not wont to use metaphorical ex-
pressions in the wording of their precepts; which is

DOG. 139

true ; but the price of a dog being classed along with
the hire of a. prostitute, as being an odious offering at
the altar of God, leads to prefer the figurative to the
literal sense. There are great names on both sides,
if names can determine any question. For the figur-
ative, Le Clerc, Roserimuller, Houbigant, Michael is ;
for the literal, Bochart, Spenser, Ikenius, Geddes,
Dathe. Herbelot quotes a passage from a Persian
poet, in which Sodomites are compared to dogs. The
Turks reckon a dog an unclean and filthy creature,
and therefore drive him from their houses. Dogs
there belong to no particular owners, but live on the
offals which, are thrown abroad in the streets.

Solomon and Peter compare apostates to dogs re-
turning to their vomit ; see Prov. xxvi. 11,2 Peter
ii. 22.

David, personating Christ, compares his enemies
to dogs, as slandering and persecuting him ; Ps. xxii.
16.

. And Paul calls the false apostles dogs, on account
Of their impudence and love of gain: Phil. iii. 2,
<f beware of dogs." " Cave canem," meaning rabio-
sum, was a proverb among the ancients.
f. 'Virgil uses the term ". obscoahique canes," in Geor.
1. 1, v. 470. .

But, in Isaiah Ivi. 10, the dog is used as the sym-
bol of diligence and watchfulness ; for, vile as many
creatures may be in their habits as animals, there are
none that may hot be considered as possessing some
good qualities, as being of God's formation, and in-
tended severally for wise purposes; As the barking
of dogs is useful to give notice to man of the approach
of strangers, so those watchmen mentioned by the

140 DOG.

Prophet, meaning the ministers of religion of that
day, when they ceased to warn the people, are com-
pared to dogs who are dumb, and who cannot or do
not bark, consequently who have lost their most use-
fill property.

When our Lord says, in Matt. xv. 26, " It is not
proper to take the children's bread and throw it to
the dogs," by the children he means the Jews, by the
dogs the Gentiles. In the Rabbinical writings, the
question is put, " What does a dog mean ?" and the
answer given is, "One who is uncircumcised."

The dog and the sow are mentioned together by
Isaiah, chap. Ixvi. 3 ; by Christ in Matt. vii. 6 ; and
by Peter, 2 Ep. ii. 22, as being alike impure and un-
acceptable. Horace also classes them together,
" Vixisset canis immundus, vel arnica luto sus."

DOOR, is that which closes the light.

The opening of any thing is said, when it may act
suitably to its quality.

The shutting of any thing is the stopping of its use.

Therefore: Paul, in 1 Cor. xvi. 9, 2 Cor. ii. 12,
Col. iv. 3, uses the symbol of a. door opened, to signi-
fy the free exercise and propagation of the Gospel.

Thus in Pindar (Olymp. Od. 6.) " to open the
gates of songs," is to begin to sing freely.

And in Euripides (Hippol. v. 56.), the gates of
hell opened, signify death ready to seize upon a man,
and to exert its power.

And thus in the Ottoman Empire, according to Sir
Paul Rycaut, when a call or new levy of Janisaries is
made, it is said to be " the opening of a door for Ja-
nisaries ;" an expression very much like that in

DOOR DOVE. 141

Acts xiv. 27, of God's having " opened a door of
faith for the Gentiles."

John x. 9, our Lord applies the term to himself,
" I am the door j" on which see Campbell's note on
John x. 8.

In Hosea ii. 15, the valley of Achor is called " a
door of hope," because there, immediately after the
execution of Achan, God said to Joshua, " Fear not,
neither be dismayed," (ch. viii. 1.) and promised to
support him against Ai, her king, and people. And
from that time Joshua drove on his conquests with
uninterrupted success. See Horsley on the passage.
DOVE. The symbol of purity and innocence.
Jesus recommends to his disciples the caution of
the serpent and the harmlessness of the dove, Matt.
x. 16. It has been justly observed, that he does not
recommend these qualities separately, but conjunctly,
that the one may supply what is lacking in the other,
or correct what is lacking of the other ; for prudence
or . caution separately may degenerate into mischie-
vous cunning, and simplicity into silliness. Our poet
Cowper has well expressed it :

* That thou may'st injure no one, dove-like be:
And serpent-like, that none may injure thee."

And Paul has given the same advice in another
form, Rom. xvi. 19, " I wish you indeed to be wise
in that which is good, and pure in respect to evil."

So Martial, lib. 10, Epigr. 47,

. *' Prudens simplicitas, pares amici,
Sicut columbffi."

The kings of Assyria are said to have used the
dove as an emblem. See Ramirez de Prado, who
says they had it painted on their standards, banners,

142 DOVE.

and public edifices, as the ensign of their empire.
Hence we find in Hosea xi. 11, in allusion to the re-
turn of the ten tribes,

" They shall hasten as a bird from Egypt,
And as a dove from the land of Assyria."

And in ch. vii. 11,

" Ephraim is as a simple dove without knowledge ;
Upon Egypt they call; to Assyria they resort."

Semiramis is said by Diodprus Siculus, 1. 3, c. 4,
to have had her name in the Syriac language eivo rat
irsgifsgai, from the dove.

From the title of Ps. Ivi., which is addressed " to
the dove of the distant groves," and seems to have
been composed by David when flying from Saul, or
some similar enemy, as from a hawk, we may conjec-
ture that the dove was an emblem also of the Israel-
itish kings, especially as we learn from some of the
Jewish writers, quoted by Lightfoot, torn. 2d, " That
when Solomon sat on his throne, there was appended
to it a sceptre, on whose top was a dove, and a golden
crown in the mouth of the dove." Probably the em-
blem was borrowed from the history of Noah and his
dove with the olive of peace, and might be intended
to denote a pacific reign.

That the dove is a very timid bird, is well known,
and is in part alluded to in Hosea xi. 1 1, and Ezek.
vii. 16, where the Vulgate renders the Hebrew by
" omnes trepidi," all of them trembling. The pro-
fane writers notice this quality. Thus Ovid, as quot-
ed by Parkhurst :

" So did I flee, so did he pursue,
As flies the fearful dove with trembling wing,
And as the falcon rapidly pursues."

DOVE. 143

And Homer, fl. 22, line 139, &c.

" Thus at the panting dove a falcon flies,
(The swiftest racer of the liquid skies,)
Just when he holds or thinks he holds his prey,
Obliquely wheeling through th' aerial way;
'With open beak and shrilling cries he springs,
And aims his claws, and shoots upon his wings."

POPE.

So Virgil, Mn. 11, line 721, &c.

" Not with more ease the falcon from above,
Shoots, seizes, gripes, and rends the trembling dove,
All stain'd with blood the beauteous feathers fly,
And the loose plumes come fluttering down the sky."

PITT.

The dove is also the symbol of rest. It was a bird,
of this kind that brought the tidings to Noah of the
retiring of the waters, Gen. viii. 11.

Propertius has a similar notice, lib. 2,

" Dux erat ignoto missa columba mari,
Ilia meis tantum non unquam desit ocellis."

i. e. a dove was sent forth as a guide in the unknown
seas, and she was never absent from my eyes.

Apollodorus also says, " In the Argonautic expe-
dition, a dove. was sent out from the ship among the
rocks called Symplegades, in order to determine, by
her fate, whether they might be safely passed." Lib.
1, fol. 32.

The Psalmist says, Ps. Iv. 6,

" O that I had wings like a dove."

Seneca, in his Agamemnon, has a similar expres-
sion:

" Qua lacrymis nostris questus
Reddet Aedon? cujuspennas
Utinam misere mini fata darent !"

The cooing of the dove, when solitary, is often al-

144 DOVE;

luded to in Scripture, as in Is. xxxviii. 14, lix. 11,
Nah. ii. 7.

That the dove is a proper emblem of the Holy Spi-
rit, is generally admitted, it being in that form, <*,
that the _ Spirit descended on Christ at his baptism,
Matt. iii. 16. Some have thought that there is an
allusion to this emblem in Gen. i. 2, " And the Spirit
of God brooded (like a bird or dove) over the waters."
The olive of peace brought back by the dove of Noah,
has also led to a supposed prefiguration of the same
kind. It is to Noah's dove, no doubt that Plutarch
refers, in his treatise on the instinct or craft of ani-
mals : " The my thologists tell us, that the dove which
Deucalion sent out of his ark, when she returned to him
again, was a sure sign that the storm had not ceased,
but of serene weather, when she flew quite away."

" The Holy Ghost," says Archbishop Leighton,
" descended upon the Apostles in the shape of fire.
There was something to be purged in them ; they are
to be quickened and enabled by it for their calling.
But in him, as a dove, there was no need of cleansing
or purging out any thing. That was a symbol of the
spotless purity of his nature, and of the fulness of the
Spirit dwelling in hint. Is. Ix. 8,

" Who are these that fly as a cloud,
And as doves to their windows?"

where the Chaldee renders, "as doves who return
to their dovecots." Pliny, in his Natural History,
remarks, " Solent columbas imprimis ad notos nidos
et columbaria, quamlibet in remota loca transvectffi,
pernici volatu remeare." Wherefore a dove was of-
ten sent forth as a sign and omen of future return,
when the emperors went to war, as the Scholiast oh

DOVE. 145

Apollon., lib. 2, Argon., informs us. And Ovid has

this expression:

*^ Aspice ut redeant ad Candida tecta columbae/'

But Bp. Lowth translates the text in Isaiah thus :

" And as doves upon the w\ng; n

for which he assigns his reasons. See his note on the
place.

The dove was ordained as an offering Bunder the
Old Testament, Lev. xii. 6, 8. It was worshipped
among the Assyrians and. Samaritans. See Lucian
de Dea Syr.; p 795, " Of birds, the dove appears to
them the most sacred, and they account it unlawful
even to touch it." And Hyginus says, " On this ac-
count the Syrians do not eat fishes and doves, which
they reckoned among the number of their gods."
That doves were much used among the Jewish sa-
crificers, appears from Matt. xxi. 12, " the. seats of
them that sold doves." See also Mark xi. 15; John
ii. 14, 16. That they were offered among the Gen-
tile sacrifices, is plain from ancient authors. Thus

Ovid, Fasti, 1. 1,

" Ergo saepe suo conjux abducta marito
Uritur in calidis alba columba focis."

And Propertius, 1. 4, Eleg. 5, in fine.

The dove was worshipped among the Assyrians, as
some think, in honour of Semiramis ; but others sup-
pose, as an emblem of the air ; and hence Hesychius
considers it to be the hieroglyphic of a person of ex-
alted mind, and who addicts himself to divine con-
templations. Virgil says,

" Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas."

And Tibullus,

" Quid xeferam ut volitet crebras intacta per urbes
Alba Palsestino sancta Columba Syro ?"

K

146 DOVE......DKUNK.

The dove was viewed as the emblem of meekness
and simplicity ; hence, when David was affected with
a desire to fly, he wished for the wings, not of the
eagle or the hawk, though stronger and more impe-
tuous, but of the dove, for then he should flee away,
and be at rest.

It was also considered to be the harbinger of hap-
pier times* and in that respect the symbol of fiiture
felicity, when the season of Divine wrath shall have
passed away, and men shall enjoy rest in the favour
of God, as Noah's dove was the messenger of the ces-
sation of the deluge, and the return of serene skies
and subsiding waters.

DRUNK. Drunkenness is sometimes the symbol
of folly, and of the madness of sinners, who, making
no use of their reason, involve themselves in all sorts
of crimes.

So Philo explains it.

And so it is taken in Isa. xxviii. 1, 3, and by Ar-
temidorus, in lib. 3. c. 42.

And then, as punishment is the consequence of sin,
so drunkenness, in the Prophets, is taken for that
stupidity which arises from God's judgments ; when
the sinner is under the consternation of his misery, as
one astonished, staggering, and not knowing what to
do and is therefore the symbol of a very miserable
state.

Thus in Job xii. 25,

" They grope in the dark without light,
And he maketh them to stagger like a drunken man."

In Isaiah xxix. 9,

" They are drunken, but not with wine ;
They stagger, but not with strong drink,"

DEUNK. 147

See also Isa. li. 21, 22, and Lowth's note on Isa. i.
22.
Jer. xiii. 13, 14,

"I will fill all the inhabitants of this land,
And the kings that sit in David's stead on his thrones,
And the priests and the prophets,

And all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, with drunkenness ;
And I will dash them one against another, - _
And the fathers and the children together, saim Jehovah."

Here the prophet is directed to deal plainly with
them, and to tell them that the wine he meant was
not such as would exhilarate, but such as would in-
toxicate ; being no other than what would be poured
out of the wine cup of God's fury to the subversion
of all ranks and orders of men amongst them. Com-
pare ch. xxv; 15-29, and Lam. iii. 15.

Aristotle says, the drunken are doubly punished.
Eth. 1. 3, c. 5. Sometimes idolatry is set forth under
the symbol of drunkenness, as being attended there-
with. See Jer. li. 7.

And sometimes drunkenness is used in a good sense
for being replenished or satisfied with good things,
as in Jer. xxxi. 14, according to the original.

And so the Oneirocritics sometimes, as in ch. cxi,
cxii, explain it of the acquisition of riches.

See under Cup and Wine.

Hosea vii. 5,

" On the feast day of our king, when the princes began to be

hot with wine,
He stretched out his hand with theWorner."

The following is the comment of Tarnovius On this
passage: " Turn morbo afficiunt seipsos Principes
calore ex vino, vaporibus calidis caput occupantibus,
unde Cephalalgia, qui morbus ebrietatem comitatur,

148 DRUNE......DTJST.

quin etiam febrim ardentem saepe contrahunt po-
tores ex nimio vino, quo incalescunt."

" Wo to them (says Isaiah v. 11.) who rise early la the- morn-
ing, to follow strong drink ;
Who sit late in the evening, that wine may inflame them."

Comp. Amos vi. 3-6.

DUST, the symbol of rejection.

Matt. x$14, "Shake off the dust from your feet,"
i. e. says Origen, _" Shew them that the very dust
which you have collected in a journey undertaken on
their account, shall be a witness against them in the
day of judgment, because they were unwilling to re-
ceive you,, or to hear your discourses."

That the Apostles literally observed this injunction
of their Master, appears from Acts xiii. 51," in the
case: of Antioch in Pisidia.

" Men would not," says Baxter, " triumph in their
own calamity, when they have expelled their faithful
teachers (the dust of whose feetj the sweat of their
brows, the tears of their eyes, and the fervent prayers
and groans of their hearts, must witness against them),
if they know themselves."

It was maintained by the Scribes, that the very dust
of a heathen country polluted their land, and there-
fore ought not to be brought into it. Our Lord here,
adopting their language, requires his Disciples by this
action, to signify that those Jewish cities which re-
jected their doctrine, deserved a regard noway supe-
rior to that which they themselves showed to the cities
of Pagans. See Campbell's note in ; loc,

When. the Jews, Acts xxiu'23, in the height- of
their rage, threw dust into the air, it showed that
these- outrageous people would have reduced the

DUST. 149

Apostle to powder, if they durst. Comp. 2 Sam. xvi.
13, and see Harmer, b. 4, p. 202.

Dust is the symbol of a low condition.

1 Sam. ii. 8,

" God raiseth up the poor out of the dust,
To set them among princes."

Nahum iii; 18, Thy nobles shall dwell in the
dust."

But the proper rendering here seems to be, dwell
in sloth.

" Quiescunt, decumbunt, dormiunt." See Newcome's note.

1 Kings xy.. 2, " I raised thee out of the dust,"
&c.

Isaiah iv. 1, " Descend and sit in the dust, O vir-
gin daughter of Babylon."

Sitting on the ground was a posture that denoted
mourning and deep distress. Jeremiah has the same
image in Lam. ii. 8,

" The elders of the daughter of Sion sit on the ground, they

are silent ;

They have cast up dust on their heads,
They have girded themselves with sackcloth,
The virgins of Jerusalem have bowed down their heads to

the ground."

Judea is represented in this posture on ancient
coins. See Addison on Medals.

The Persians have a proverb, when they would
express the lowest humility, " I am the dust of your
feet."

Dust is the symbol of human frailty and mortality.

Gen. iii. 19, " Dustthou art, and to dust thou shalt
return."

Job vii. 21, " For now shall I sleep in the dust."

150 DUST.

. Ps. xxii. 15, " Thou hast brought me to the dust
of death."

Rightly, therefore, does the Psalmist observe, Ps. ciii.
14,

" He knoweth our frame,
He remembereth that we are dust."

Comp. Eccl. iii. 20 ; Job x. 9 ; Sirach xvii. 81.

Hence also we find profane writers using such ex-
pressions : thus Horace, 1. 4, Od. 7,

" Pulvis et umbra sumus.

Q,uis scit an adjiciant hodiernae crastina summse
Tempora Di super! ?"

And Phocylides, " For we have a body formed from
the earth, and are all resolved into it again. We are

dust, xens la-fKt"

Dust is the symbol of sorrow add mourning.

The messenger who announced Saul's death had
dust upon his head.

2 Sam. i. 2. The friends of Job had the same
tokens, ch. ii. 12 ; and the Elders of Israel, Josh. vii.
6. See many other passages.

The same custom obtained among the Heathen, as
in Homer's Odyssey, 24, v. 315,

" Deep from his soul he sigh'd, and sorrowing spread,
A cloud of ashes on his hoary head."

And Catullus,

" Frimum multas expromam mente querelas,
. Canitiem terra atque infuso pulvere turpans."

And Statius, Theb. 1. 3,

" Canitiem impexam dira tellure volutans."

Dust is used to denote multitude : thus, Gen. xiii.
16, " I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth."

DUST DWELL EAGLE- 151

Num. xxiii. 10, " Who can count the dust of Jacob ?"
Ps. Ixxviii. 27, " He rained flesh also upon them as
dust."

DWELL. To dwell over to give rest and pro-
tection. See Num. ix. 18, 22 Isa. iv. 6 ; xviii. 4 ;
xxv. 4 ; xxx. 2 Dan. iv. 12.

And the Indian interpreter, ch. 202.
- To dwell among, Rev. vii. .15 ; xxi. 3, signifies also
protection but in a more remarkable manner the
foregoing expression signifying protection, by any
instrument that effects it but this, protection by the
familiar converse and perpetual presence of the worker.

Eph. iii. 17, " That Christ may dwell in your
hearts by faith." Paul here compares the minds of
the Ephesian Christians to a temple, in allusion to
the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus, which had
an image of her, fabulouslyreported to have fallen from
heaven, constantly dwelling in it. He prays that they
might possess a more substantial blessing, viz. " That
Christ might dwell in them, not personally, but by
faith," i. e. by the principles of his religion, heartily
and firmly believed by them. See Chandler's excel-
lent note on the passage.

. The word of Christ is said to dwell in a person
richly in all wisdom, Col. iii. J 6, when, as Cruden
well observes, it is diligently studied, firmly believed,
and carefully practised.

EAGLE, the well-known ensign of the Roman
empire, is usually the symbol of a king or kingdom.

In JSschylus, Xerxes is represented under the sym-
bol of an eagle, and, in like manner, Agamemnon.
The same poet calls the eagle the king of birds. And
so did the Egyptians, who also represented a king,

152 EAGLE.

that seldom appeared in public, by an eagle. And in
the Auspicia, the eagle was always the symbol of the
Supreme Power. " Livy, Hist. 1. 1 ; Appian, de Bell
Civ. 1. 1 ; Plutarch in vita Marii, p. 141.

The wings of an eagle are the symbols of protec-
tion and care. Thus, .in Exod. xix. 4, God says to
the Israelites, .after he had delivered them from Pha-
raoh, arid caused them to pass safely into the wilder-
ness, " Ye have seen what I did to the Egyptians,
and how I bare you oh eagle's wings, and 'brought
you to myself ;" which is further enlarged upon in
Deut. xxxii. 1.1, 12.

" As an eagle stirreth up her nest,

Fluttereth over her young,
. : Spreading abroad her wings,
Taketh them, beareth them on her wings;
So Jehovah alone did lead him,
And there was HO strange God with him."

Sometimes they are put as the symbols of exalta-
tion. And -thus, in Isa- xl. 31, " To mount up with
wings! as eagles," is to be highly exalted. .

The interpretation of the Oriental Oheirocritics is
exactly agreeable to what has been said.

Persons invested with riches, power, and authority,
are the best 'enabled to give defence and protection.
And therefore, in Ch. 286, the wing is made the sym-
bol of power and dignity. And as to the wings of
an eagle in particular, " If a king dreams of finding
an eagle's wings, it denotes that Tie shall obtain greater
glory and riches than the kings his predecessors.
And if a private person have such a dream, it shews
that he will be greatly enriched, and highly honoured
and promoted by his sovereign^

And again, " If a king dream that an eagle takes

EAGLE. 153

him up upon his back, and flies up on high with him,
it portends great exaltation to him in his kingdom,
and 16ng life. And the same dream to a private per-
son denotes that he shall come to reign."

And Artemidorus, 1. 2, c, 20, says, " K poor men
dream of being mounted upon an eagle, they will be
supported and well relieved by some rich persons."

This symbol, as representing royal dignity, is well
exemplified in Ezek. xvii. 1, &c., " The word of Je-
hovah also came to me, saying : Son of man, put
forth a dark speech, and speak a parable to the house
of; Israel, and say, Thus saith the Lord Jehovah, a
great eagle, with great wings, with long feathers, full
of plumage, and that had divers colours, came to Le-
banon, and took the highest branch of a cedar : he
cropped off the top of its young twigs, and carried it
into a land of traffic," &c.

Here, by the great eagle, Nebuchadnezzar is meant,
as appears by verse 12th. He is fitly represented by
the eagle,

" Cui rex deorum regnum in aves vagas
Permisit." HORACE.

The " divers colours," Michaelis thinks, "are an
allusion to the various nations which composed the
Babylonian empire." The highest branch is Jehoia-
chin, v. 12 ; 2 Kings xxiv. 12.

In verse 7th of the same chapter it is said : " There
was also another great eagle with great wings, and of
much plumage," &c., meaning the king of Egypt. See
verse 15.

Deut. xxviii. 49, " A nation swift as the eagle
flieth."

Meaning either the Chaldeans or the Romans.

154 EAGLE.

Jerem. xlviii. 40, " He shall fly as an eagle over
Moab."

The Babylonian general or nation is here design-
ed. Comp. ch. xlix. 22.

Hosea viii. 1, " As an eagle the Assyrian cometh
against the house of the Lord."

Shalmanezer is probably meant. See 2 Kings xvii.
3, 6.

Rev. iv. 7, " The fourth living creature was like
a flying eagle."

These four living creatures seem to be the appen-
dages of the chariot throne of God. The allusion is
to the visions of Isaiah and Ezekiel, where the cheru-
bim are described.

Rev. xii. 14. " To the woman were given two
wings of a great eagle."

On this text Lowman observes: "To bear on
eagles' wings is an allusion to the strength and swift-
ness of an eagle's flight, and well expresses the readi-
ness and power with which God often delivers his
church out of its dangers. But whether the two
wings of an eagle are here put to signify the eastern
and western parts of the Roman empire, of which an
eagle is the .armorial ensign, is left to the reader's
judgment."

See more under Carcase.

Isa. xlvi. 1 1, " Calling from the East the eagle."

A very proper emblem for Cyrus, as in other re-
spects, so particularly because the ensign .-of Cyrus
was a golden eagle, xtreg xgvro$, as Xenophon men-
tions, Cyrop. 1. 7, *& init. See Lowth in loc. Cyrus
came from the East, and claimed to himself the prey
of many nations.

EARTH. 155

... EARTH is the symbol of a people in a state of
peace, quietness, and submission, and, at the same
time, involved in idolatry or apostasy.
_ The reasons are,

1. In the symbolical language, the natural world
represents the political. The heavens, sun, and lumi-
naries, represent the governing part; and, conse-
quently, the earth must represent the part governed,
submitting and inferior.

2. The sea is frequently used to denote men in war
and tumult ; and therefore earth may signify men in
a state of peace.

3. It is the usual style of the Scriptures to repre-
sent such men as are sinners, idolaters, out of the
covenant of grace, or at least apostates from it, by the
names of earth, inhabitants of the earth, and the like,
as in Gen. xi. 1. " All the earth" signifies all men
living then, who had begun to apostatize. Whereas
all good men, who have their conversation or citizen-
ship in heaven, are, for the most part, styled saints,
servants of God, prophets, martyrs, and the like.

. Matt. v. 5, " The meek shall inherit the earth."
Gomp. Ps. xxxvii. 11, 29.

- Moses had his land of promise, with the prospect
of which he roused the Israelites. Jesus Christ also
has his, with the hope of which he encourages and
stimulates his disciples. That it is the heavenly
happiness that is here meant, appears certain (for all
the promises here relate to things spiritual and eter-
nal), but still conveyed under those typical expres-
sions, to which his hearers had been habituated. (See
Campbell's note on the place.)
Vitringa considers the earth in another point of

156 EARTH......EARTHQUAKE.

view. He supposes the earth to be put in opposition
to the sea, the former .as' producing fruit ; the latter
as barren* Under this aspect, he consides the earth
to represent the Church, and the sea to denote 'Pa-
ganism. And he understands the vision in Rev. xiii.
1, 11, in this sense : The beast that rises up out of
the sea, comes from Paganism ; the other that comes
up out of the earth, is from the lands inhabited by
Christians, or what is termed. Christendom.

But Lowman interprets the "rising but of the sea"
to mean, that it should owe its original to the com-
motions of the people ; for so waters are interpreted
by the angel, v. 15. The second beast which rose up
out of the earth, is understood by Sir Isaac Newton
to be the church of the Greek empire, for it had two
horns like those of a lamb, and therefore was a church ;
and it spake as the dragon, and therefore was of his
religion ; and it came out of the earth, and by conse-
quence in his kingdom.

EARTHQUAKES. Though the Greek word
ewrftos is usually translated an earthquake, it literally
signifies a shaking, and is often used for any violent
agitation or change, whether in the heavens or the
earth. See Joel ii. 10; Hag. ii. 21 ; Heb. xii. 26 ;
Pirn. Nat. Hist. 1. 2, c. 79, &c. 521

An earthquake, when great, overturns and changes
the surface of the earth, overturning' mountains, hills,
and rocks, sinking some parts, elevating others, alter-
ing the course of rivers, making ponds and lakes on
dry : lands, and .drying up those that already existed ;
and is. therefore a, proper symbol of great revolutions
or changes in the government or political world.

, It is thus used in the prophets above quoted, and

EARTHQUAKE. 157

in Jerem. iv. 23i 24, &c. And to the same purpose
it is explained' by Artemidorus, lib. 2, c. 46 ; and by
the Oriental interpreters, c. 144, who there also ex-
plain it of a change in the state, occasioned by new
laws.

There are only three literal earthquakes mention-
ed in Scripture, namely, that mentioned 1 Kings xix.
1 1 ; that in Uzziah's time, mentioned in Amos i. 1,
Zech. iv. 5, and also by Josephus, who speaks of it as
being very violent. The third was that which took
place at our Saviour's death, Matt, xxvii. 51.

Every other earthquake spoken of in the Old Tes-
tament, and some of those predicted in the New, may
be considered as symbolical merely, representing great
political commotions, and revolutions of Empires.

Take for instance that in Joel iii. 16, " The hea-
vens and the earth shall shake." The prophet hav-
ing said, that the Lord shall roar out of Zion, and
utter his voice from Jerusalem, continues the meta-
phor. As a lion, when he roars, makes the woods or
plains to resound, and the beasts of the field to
tremble ; so God being here compared to this fierce
animal, his voice is justly said to make the very hea-
vens and earth shake ; the plain meaning of which is,
all should be put into the utmost consternation and
distress, like a man seeing a roaring lion coming on
him to devour him ; or 'as if he saw the very heavens
and earth themselves moving and in the utmost dis-
order. All this, says Kimchi, is by way of similitude.
No one is so ignorant, says Maimonides (more Nev.),
and so addicted to the letter of parables, as to imagine
any change in the heavens, or that the earth was
moved from its centre when Babylon was destroyed.

158 EARTHQUAKE.

No; such expressions represent only the state and
condition of the conquered, to whom light is darkness,
sweet bitter ; to whom the earth seems ' too narrow,
and the heavens to threaten him with ruins.

In Haggai ii. 6, 7, there is a well known prophecy
to this effect

" For thus saitb Jehovah, God of Hosts,
Yet once more, in a short time,
I will shake the heavens and the earth,

And the sea and the dry land s '
And I will shake all the nations,
And the desire of all nations shall come."

This is quoted in the epistle to the Hebrews, ch.
xii. 26, thus :

" Yet once more I shake not the earth only;" ;

i. e. the heathen idolatry, and the powers which sup-
port it

" But also the heaven;"

i. e. the Mosaic worship and the Jewish state.

It was said above that only three literal earthquakes
are recorded in Scripture. To these on recollection a
fourth must be added, namely, that at the giving of
the law on Sinai. For we are told, Exod. xix. 18,
" That the whole mount quaked greatly," before God
spake* the ten commandments.

It is added to the passage in Heb. xii. see verse 27,
that this expression, " yet once," denotes the removal
or abolition of the things shaken, as of things that
were made, z. e. were of an inferior and imperfect na-
ture, that those which were not to be shaken, namely,
the gospel church and worship, may remain. Which
is, in other words, to say, that the Christian dispensa-
tion shall be permanent, and shall never be supplanted
by any other.

EARTHQUAKE. 159

The destruction of Sennacherib's army is described
by Isaiah as accompanied

" With thunder, and earthquakes, and a mighty voice,
With storm, and tempest, and flame of devouring fire."

But these images, as Lowth observes, are more adapt-
ed to shew the greatness, suddenness, and horror of
the event, than the means and manner by which it
was effected.

There is a sublime passage in Isa. xxiv. 19, &c.
where the destruction of the ecclesiastical and civil
polity of the Jews is described under the image of an
earthquake. I adopt Lowth's version of the passage.

" The land is grievously shaken ;
The land is utterly shattered to pieces ;
The land is violently moved out of her place ;
The land reeleth to and fro like a drunkard;
And moveth this way and that, like a lodge for the night,
For her iniquity lieth heavy upon her,
And she shall fall and rise no more ;"

the best comment upon which is that furnished. by
Sir Isaac Newton, in his Observations on the Pro-
phecies, part 1, chap. 2, where he says, " The figura-
tive language of the prophets is taken from the ani-
logy between the world natural, and an empire or
kingdom considered as a world politic. Accordingly,
the whole world natural, consisting of heaven and
earth, signifies the whole world politic, consisting of
thrones and people, or so much of it as is considered
in prophecy ; and the things in that world signify the
analogous things in this. For the heavens and the
things therein signify thrones and dignities, and those
who enjoy them ; and the earth, with the things
thereon, the inferior people ; and the lowest parts of
the earth, called Hades, or Hell, the lowest or most

160 EARTHQUAKE.

miserable part of them. : r Great' earthquakes j and the
shaking of heaven and earth, are put for the shaking
of kingdoms^ so as to distract and overthrow them;
the creating a new heaven and earth j and the passing
away of an old one, or the beginning and end of a
world*; for the rise and ruin of a body politic, signified
thereby. The sun for the whole species and race of
kings in the kingdoms of the world, politic ; the moon
for the body of the common people, considered as the
king's wife; the stars, for subordinate princes and
great men, or for the bishops and rulers of the people
of God, when the sun is Christ ; setting of the sun,
moon, and stars, darkening the sun, turning the moon
into blood, and falling of the stars, for the ceasing of
a kingdom."
Amos iv. 13,

** He that maketh the morning darkness,
And treadeth upon the high places of the earth,
Jehovah God of Hosts is his name."

Newcome supposes, that both here and in ch. v. 8,
there is an allusion to the black clouds and smoke at-
tending earthquakes which happen during the day :
" Des nuages noirs et epais (says a French writer),
sont ordinairement les avant-coureurs de ces funestes
catastrophes. On a vu sortir une flamme de terre
dans ces tremblemens, mais plus souvent de la fumee."

Amos viii. 8, 9,
" Shall not the land be shaken for. this ?

And shall not all mourn that dwell therein ?
And shall not all of it rise up as the river,

And be driven out -of its place, and sink down, as the river
of Egypt?

And it shall come to pass in that day,

Saith the Lord Jehovahj

That I will cause the sun to. go down at noon.

And will darken the land in the bright day."

EARTHQUAKE. 161

.The rising and falling of the ground with a wave-like
motion, and its leaving its proper place and bounds
on occasion of an earthquake, are justly and beauti-
fully compared to the swelling, the overflowing, and
the subsiding of the Nile : " Le mouvement qu'elles
impriment a la terre est tantot une espece d'undula-
tion semblable a celle de vagues." See Newcome.

Joel ii. 10,
" Before them (i. e. the locusts) the earth quaketh, the heavens

tremble,

The sun and the moon are darkened,
- And the stars withdraw their shining."
Kimchi says, that all these expressions are only by
way of similitude, to denote the greatness of the af-
fliction experienced, according to the usual custom of
Scripture. And Jerome tells us we are not to ima-
gine that the heavens actually moved, or the earth
shook, but that these things seemed to be so, through
the greatness of affliction and terror.

When the prophet, however, adds, " The sun and
the moon are darkened," it might literally be so, as
Bochart has brought many instances to prove, and
Chandler has quoted one in particular, that happened
in Germany in the year 873, of which it is reported,
that during the space of two whole months, the lo-
custs by their, flight often obscured the rays of the
sun for the space of one whole mile. Pliny, also, in
his Natural History, 1. 11, c. 29, observes, "That
they darken the sun so that the people look towards
them, greatly afraid lest they should cover over their
lands."

Rev. vi. 12, " And lo, there was a great earth-
quake.": A political earthquake, no doubt, although
about the time supposed to be alluded to, namely.,

L

162 EARTHQUAKE.

about A. D, 365, the prediction was fulfilled literally,
in .that stupendous earthquake described by Ammia-
nus Marcellinus, 1. 26, c. 14, " Horrendi.tremores per
omnem orbis ambit um grassati sunt subito, quales nee
fabulse nee veridicse nobis antiquitates exponunt.
Paulo post lucis exortuui densitate prsevia fulgurum
acrius vibratoruin tremefacta concutitur omnis ter-
reni stabilitas ponderis," &c.

For an earthquake, as Mede observes, implies not
a destruction, but an extraordinary alteration of the
face of things, as an earthquake changes the posi-
tion of the earth's surface, by. exalting vallies and de-
pressing hills, turning: the channels and courses of
rivers, and such like. And was there not here the
whole political government as well as religion altered,
the imperial seat removed, the distribution of pro-
vinces,, offices, &c. new moulded ? And if the Roman
deities are meant by the stars and mountains, men-
tioned ver. 13 and 14, we need go no farther for an
exposition of this earthquake, and the shock it caused
in the world. See Rev. xi. 13, and Lowman's para-
phrase and notes on the passage ; see also ver. 19 of
the same chapter.

That earthquakes were sometimes considered as
symbolical among the heathen appears from Justin,
1. 30, c. 4: tc In the same year there was an earth-
quake between the islands of Thera and Therasia,
where, to the amazement of navigators, there suddenly
arose from the deep an island with hot waters: And
in Asia, on the same day, the same earthquake shat-
tered Rhodes and many other cities, with a terrible
ruin, and swallowed up some entirely. At whicih
prodigy all being alarmed, the soothsayers gave out,

EARTHQUAKE EAT. 163

' that the rising empire of the Ramans would swallow
up the ancient one oftlte Greeks and Macedonians' "

EAT. To eat, in the symbolical language, signi-
fies to meditate and to digest divine truths. The
metaphor is a very obvious one. As food nourishes
the animal frame, so truth and knowledge are the nu-
triment of the soul. " Thy words were found," says
Jeremiah, ch. xv. 16, " and I did eat them and thy
message was to me the joy and delight of my heart !"
" Son of man," says the divine voice to Ezekiel, ch.
iii. 1, " eat that which thou fmdest, eat this roll, and
go, speak unto the. house of Israel." Our blessed
Lord uses the same expression several times in the
6th chapter of John's Gospel, when he speaks of him-
self as the bread of life. And in Rev. x. 9, the angel
says to John, " Take the little book, and eat it up,"
L e. consider it carefully, and digest it well, and thou
shalt find, in the events it shall reveal to thee, matter
of comfort and joy, of grief and sorrow.

Hence, in Joshua i. 8, it is said, " This book of the
law shall not depart out of thy mouth, but thou shalt
meditate therein day and night/' And hence the
frequent expressions of the Psalmist, about the medi-
tation of God's law, Ps. cxix. 99>

" Thy testimonies are my meditation ;"
and verse 103,

" How sweet are thy words to my taste !
Yea, sweeter than honey to my mouth."

And Philo calls eating the symbol of spiritual nou-
rishment ; the soul being nourished by the reception
of truth, and the practice of virtue.

Plautus says, " I eat your discourse with .a vast
deal of pleasure ;" and " that is meat to me which

164 EA.T......ECL1PSES.

you tell me.'' And so .to taste, signifies to make trial
of any thing, as in the same writer, " I had a mind
to taste his discourse." And many other examples
may be found in Greek authors. So we say some-
times, I devoured your letter with avidity, meaning,
I read it with the greatest satisfaction.

In the Oneirocritios, to eat, signifies constantly to
turn something to one's profit.

Eating, when it comes under the notion of devour-
ing, signifies destruction in any form, or taking from
others, according as the decorum of the adjunct sym-
bols requires, as in Deut. xxxii. 42 ; 2 Sam. ii. 26 ;
Jer. li. 44. The same metaphor occurs in the Greek
and Latin authors.

" I have meat to eat which ye know not of," John
iv. 32 ; z". e. I have engagements which I prefer be-
fore bodily refreshment, viz. to bring these Samari-
tans to the knowledge of the truth.

Hosea iv. 8,

" They eat the sin offerings of my people,
And they set their heart on their iniquity."

Meaning, they gladly partake of the daily sacrifices,
without any attempts to reclaim the people from the
sins which occasion them. Lev. vi, 26.

ECLIPSES. The same may be affirmed of eclip-
ses of the heavenly bodies, as was said of earthquakes,
(see under Earthquake) that they are seldom to be
understood literally, but rather as symbolically de-
noting great political events. " Great public calami-
ties are described in the prophets, (says Bossuet), as
if the order of nature was overturned -the earth-
quakes, the sun and nioon are darkened, and the stars
fall from heaven. There is no need to understand

ECLIPSES. 165

such expressions of real earthquakes and eclipses ;
the prophetic style plainly shews they are figurative
expressions, describing great calamities and changes,
which the judgments of God would bring upon the
earth. Thus the prophet Isaiah, predicting a great
destruction of God's enemies, for their opposition to
his church, which he calls " the day of the Lord's
vengeance," describes it in these terms, ch. xxxiv. 4,

" And all the host of heaven shall waste away,
And the heavens shall be rolled up like a scroll ;
And all their host shall wither,
As the withered leaf falleth from the vine,
And as the blighted fruit from the fig-tree."

The general meaning of which expressions is ex-
plained in the following verse, v. 5,

" For my sword is made bare in the heavens,
Behold, on Edom it shall descend ;
And on the people justly by me devoted to destruction."

The same prophet thus writes in ch. xiii. 10,

" Yea, the stars of heaven, and the constellations thereof,

Shall not send forth their light,
The sun is darkened at his going forth,
And the moon shall not cause her light to shine."

On which see Lowth's judicious note.
See also Joel ii. 10 ; Amos viii. 9 ; Matt. xxiv. 29,
and other places.
Joel-, iii. 4,

" The sun shall be turned into darkness,
And the moon into blood."

Aben Ezra expounds the words literally of the
eclipses of the sun and moon, which he says are the
signs of great wars. Maimonides, on the other hand,
understands it by way of similitude, denoting the
great calamities and distress of the times spoken of.

166 ECLIPSES.... ..EGYPT EYES.

Sir Isaac Newton says, that these signs denote the
ceasing of a kingdom, or the desolation thereof. But
that this is not always the case, appears from Joel ii.
10. Sometimes the case is literally true in great
wars, by reason of columns of smoke ascending from
the 'burning cities, which* darken the sun, and dis-
colour the moon, or make it appear red and bloody,
fire and smoke having that effect.

EGYPT. Rev. xi. 8, which spiritually is called
Sodom and Egypt.

The great city here mentioned, is that which reigns
over the kings of the earth, or Rome, the empress of
the world, and is compared to Egypt, on account of
its tyranny, persecution, cruelty, pride, impenitence,
and idolatry.

It is literally true, that our Lord was crucified
there, since he was crucified by a Roman governor,
who derived, his power from Rome, and Judea was
then within the bounds of the empire. He was
afterwards crucified there in his servants, the Apos-
tles and others, to whom whatever is done, he im-
putes as done to himself.

EYES, on account of their light and use, are the
symbols of government and Justice. Thus the sun is
called the eye of the world, as governing or enlight-
ening it under God.

The sun is called the eye of the sky by Aristo-
phanes.

The moon, the eye of the evening, by Pindar, and
the eye of the night, by JSschylus.

According to the Egyptian Hieroglyphics, the eye
is the observer of justice, and the keeper of the whole
body.

EYES. 167

Artemidorus calls the eyes the leaders and rulers
of the body.

And our Saviour says, " The lamp of the body is
the eye," Matt. xi. 22.

According to the Indian interpreter, the eyes are
the symbols tf fidelity, glory, and knowledge.

On these accounts the angels of the Lord are called
his eyes, Zech. iv. 10, as being the executioners of his
judgments, and watching and attending for his glory.
See Mede's remarkable discourse upon this text. and
compare under Seven.

In imitation of this, the favourites and prime min-
isters of state in the Persian monarchy, were called
the king's eyes, according to the oriental customs and
notions;

So in Num. x. 31, " to be instead of eyes," w
equal to being a prince, to guide and rule the people.
In Pindar, Olymp. 2, the eye of Sicilia is given as
a title to one of the chief men in Sicily, shewing his
power. And thus also, in the same, " the eye of the
army," stands for a good commander.

In Deut. xi. 1 2, the eyes of the Lord, signify the
Divine Providence.

In Job. xxiv. 25, " the eye of the adulterer," is his
lascivious desire.

" Is thine eye evil, because I am good," Matt. xx.
15, i. e. art thou envious against thy brother, because
I choose to shew kindness to him ?

Prov. xxii. 9 5 "a bountiful eye," one that is li-
beral to the poor.

Dan. vii. 8, "Eyes like the eyes of a man," may
signify the desires, designs, and behaviour of a man ;
t. e. of a common or mean man. -

168 EYES;... ..FACE.

Ezek. xxiv. 16, "the desire of the eyes ;" i. e. our
great joy and delight. Euripides has " the eye of
life," for the pleasure of life.

Eyes as a flame of fire, see under Fire.

FACE. It is a singular privilege which is spoken
of, Rev. xxii. 4, as being granted to the servants of
God, " that they shall see his face." The term in
Greek TT^OG-UKW agrees with the Hebrew penim, and
is used not only of animate and inanimate beings, but
in an allegorical sense of God himself, who is an in-
finite spirit. When therefore it is ascribed to Him,
it is to be explained Qsa^sTras, in a manner becoming
the Deity. It is very often so ascribed in Scripture,
see Gen. iv. 4, xxxiK 30 ; Exod. xxxiii. 20; Job ii.
7 ; Ps. xliv. 4, cxix. 38, cxl. 14, &c. &c. But " to see
the face of God," is a metaphor borrowed from the
custom of eastern kings, who sat on lofty thrones
glittering v with gold and diamonds, and manifested
their majesty only to those ministers of theirs who
were placed around their throne and in their presence,
like Solomon's of old, 1 Kings x. 8 ; and since men
for most part represent to themselves the Supreme
Being in a human form, hence to be admitted into his
immediate presence is called " seeing his face." The
Gentiles always assigned to their deities the human
figure. Hence the people of Lystra, Acts xiv. 11,
exclaimed, " The gods are come down to us in the
likeness of men." And Diodorus, 1. 1, cap. 12, says
of Jupiter, Vulcan, Ceres, and Ocean, " that they tra-
vel over the world, and appear to men sometimes in
the shape of sacred animals, at other times in the hu-
man form." And since the appearances of angels in
Old Testament times were generally of this descrip-

FACE. 169

tion, see Joshua v. 13, and other passages, it became
natural to transfer in the imagination of the beholder,
the form of the messenger to Him who sent him.

The face of God in Scripture denotes every thing
by which God is wont to manifest himself to men.
Thus :

Gen. iii. 8, " Adam and his wife hid themselves
from the presence (face) of Jehovah God among the
trees of the garden."

Ps. cxxxix. 7, 8,

" Whither shall I go from thy Spirit,
Whither shall I flee from thy presence (face) ?
If I climb up into heaven, there thou art,
If I should make the grave my bed, behold thou art there."

Exod.. xxxiii. 20, " Thou canst not see my face ;
no man can see my face and live," i. e. see my glory
perfectly, while in the present sinful state. But after
this mortal hath put on immortality, it shall be other-
wise, 1 John iii. 2 ; 1 Cor. xiii. 12.

Gen. xxxii. 30, " Aud Jacob called the name of
the place Peniel (the face of God) : for I have seen
God face to face, and my life is preserved," i. e. I
have seen him in a manifest manner, when compared
with dreams and visions.

Ps. xlii. 2,

" My soul thirstetli for God, for the living God,
When shall 1 come and see the face of God ?"

i. e. when shall he, on solemn days, pay his devotions
at the sanctuary ?

The presence of Jehovah, Exod. xxxiii. 14, 15;
and the angel, Exod. xxiii. 20, 21, is Jehovah himself;
but in Isa. Ixiii. 9, an angel of his presence is opposed
to Jehovah himself, thus (in Lowth's version) :

170 FACE.

" It was not an envoy, nor an angel of his presence, that saved

them:
Through his love and his indulgence, he himself redeemed

. them ;
, And he took them up, and he bare them, all the days of old."

After: their idolatrous worshipping of the golden
calf, when God had said to Moses, " I will send an
angel before thee, I will not go up in the midst of
thee,'' the people mourned. God afterwards comforts
Moses, by saying, " My presence (that is, I myself in
person, and not by an angel), will go with thee." See
Exodus, ch. xxxiii.

As to any appearances of the Son of God under
the Old Testament, by the name of angel or other-
wise, however they have been contended for by some
divines, whose intention was to do honour to the
Messiah, they seem to be denied by the apostle's rea-
soning in Heb. i. 2, where God is said to have spoken
to men by his Son, only in these last days.

The light of God's face is a token of his favour,
and is therefore put synonymously with favour in
Ps. xliv. 3 ; Dan. ix. 17-

Thus in men, if the countenance be serene, it is
a mark of goodwill ; if fiery or frowning, of anger or
displeasure.

Face also signifies anger, justice, and severity, as
in Gen. xvi. 6, 8 ; Exod. ii. 15 ; Ps. Ixviii. 1 ; Joel ii.
6 ; Ps. xxxiv. 16 ; Rev. vi. 16.

1 Cor. xiii. 12, " Now.we see as in a mirror dark-
ly, but then face to face," i. e. the difference between
our knowledge here and our knowledge hereafter is
such, invisible things being represented by visible
spiritual by natural eternal by temporal.

To bow down the face in the dust, Isa. xlix. 23, is
a mark of the lowest humiliation and submission.

FAT......FEED. 171

FAT is the emblem of fertility, abundance, wealth.

Jer. xxxi. 14, "I will satiate the souls of the priests
with fatness."

Ps. Ixiii. 5, " My soul shall be satiated as with
marrow and fatness."

Gen. xxvii. 28, " God give thee of the . dew of
heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of
corn and wine."

In Jer. v. 28, the words " they are waxed fat," are
thus explained by the Targum, they are become rich.
And so .in Ps. xxii. 29> the fat upon earth are the
rich, the noble, and powerful.

And so in Theocritus, Id. 7> v. 33, /<z signifies
rich or plentiful.

FEED. To feed others, signifies to give ease and
plenty, to enrich and to provide with all worldly ne-
cessaries. For, according to the notion of the ancients,
and especially the Hebrew language, riches consist in
meat and drink, in having plenty of the fruits of the
earth and much cattle, with all things necessary to
human k'fe.

So Job and Abraham arc said to be rich. And the
rich man in the gospel is described by having plenty of
corn and the fruits of the earth, more than his granaries
could hold. And so in Matt. x. 9, 10, meatis made
equivalent to gold, silver, brass, and clothes.

Prov. xxx. 8, " Feed me with food convenient for
me ;" i. e. vouchsafe those blessings that are suited to
my condition.

John xxi. 15, " Feed my lambs ;" i. e. instruct new
converts in the Christian doctrine.
. Hosea xii. 1, " Ephraiin feedeth on the wind j" i. e.,
he adopts empty and dangerous counsels.

172 FEET.

FEET are taken metaphorically in various senses,
thus:

Job xxix. 1 5, " I was feet to the lame ;" t. e. I af-
forded assistance to the miserable and helpless.

Gen. xxx. 30, " The Lord hath blessed thee at my
foot ;" i. e. through my solicitude in the care of thy
cattle.

On the other hand, the " foot of pride" in Ps.
xxxvi. 11, means the violence of haughty enemies.

The slipping of the foot implies dangers and cala-
mities, as in Job xii. 5 ; Ps. xxxviii. 17 ; cxvi. 8 ; cxl.
5, 12.

Jer. xiii. 16, " Before your feet stumble upon the
mountains of gloominess ;" i. e. before you are brought
into great calamities.

1 Peter ii. 8, Christ and his word are said to be a
stone of stumbling to those who stumble at the word,
being disobedient.

On the contrary, to keep the feet from slipping is
a symbol of the divine protection against malignant
enemies. Thus :

Ps. cxxi. 3, " He will not suffer thy footto be moved."

Prov. iii. 23, 26, and other places.

Jer. ii. 25, " Keep back thy foot from being un-
shod;" i.e. take care not to expose thyself by thy
wicked ways to the wretched condition of going into
captivity unshod, as the manner is represented, Isa.
xx. 4.

To be under any one's feet, denotes the subjection
of a subject to his sovereign, or of a servant to his
master. See Ps. viii. 6, " Thou hast put all things
under his feet ;" and compare Heb. ii. 8, and 1 Cor.
xv. 25, 27, &c.

FEET. 173

Lameness in the feet generally denotes affliction
or calamity, as in Ps. xxxv. 15; xxxviii. 18 ; Jer. xx.
10 ; Micah iv. 6, 7 ; Zech. iii. 19 ; in which two last
places the term is feminine, as referring to the word
sheep understood. As Flaccius observes: " Estlocu-
tio sumpta ab ovibus, nam ex illis solent multa sestate,
prsesertim in calidioribus illis regionibus, claudicare."

Isa. Iii. 7 ; Rom. x. 15 ; Nahum i. 15,

" How beautiful appear on the mountains

. The feet of the joyful messenger; of him that announceth

peace,

Of the joyful messenger of good tidings ; of him that an-
nounceth salvation,
Of him that saith unto Zion, Thy God reigneth !"

See Lowth's note on the passage, which is well illus-
trated by the following observations of Campbell,
Prel. Diss. 5, 2, 4 : " The feet of those who had
travelled far, in a hot country, through rough and
dusty roads, present a spectacle naturally offensive to
the beholder ; nevertheless the consideration that the
persons themselves are to us the messengers of peace
and felicity ; and that it is in bringing these welcome
tidings, they have contracted that sordid appearance,
can in an instant convert deformity into beauty, and
make us behold with delight this indication of their
embassy their dirty feet as being the natural con-
sequence of the long journey they had made."

A thought somewhat similar occurs in Horace, 1. 2,
Ode 1, who speaking of victors returning with glory
from a well fought field, exhibits them as
" Non indecoro pulvere sordidos."

The poet perceives a charm, something decorous, in
the very dust and sweat with which the warriors are

174 FEET.

smeared, and which serve to recall to the mind of the
spectator the glorious toils of the day ; thus things in
themselves ugly and disgusting share, when associat-
ed in the mind with things delightful, in the beauty
and attractions of those things with which they are
connected."

An anonymous author thus remarks on the above
text : " Non superbi caballi, sellae cathedrales, non
speciosa pallia, galeri cardinalitii, et alia preciosa in
mundo, commendantur, sed simpliciter pedes, quo
quid aliud, quam humilitas apostolicae legationis de-
notatur, et omnes eorum in docendi munere succes-
.sores, ad eandem virtutem instigantur."

To this text may appropriately be referred that in
Eph. vi. 15, " having your feet shod with the prepara-
tion of the Gospel of peace," on which Lossius thus
remarks, " Pedes significant ministerium Evangelii,
quos calceari oportet, hoc est, muniri ocreis, ut per
spinas, sentes et tribulos, hoc est, omnia pericula tran-
sire possint, docendo et confitendo Evangelium."

Paul elegantly uses a phrase borrowed from the
feet in Gal. ii. 14, " When I saw that they walked
not uprightly (lit. with a straight foot), according to
the truth of the Gospel." Compare Heb. xii. 13, and
see Chandler on Eph. vi. 15.

Eccles. v. 1, " Keep thy foot when thou goest to
the house of God ;" i. e. watch over your affections
when you engage in his worship.

Nakedness of the feet was a sign of mourning ;
Ezek. xxiv. 17.

It was also a mark of adoration ; Exod. Hi. 5.

Prov. vi. 13,

" A wicked man speaketh with his feet,
He uses insidious gestures while he is talking."

FEET FIRE. 175

The feet; by the Indian Oneirocritics, are explained of
the servants, goods, and life of the party. In Exod. xi.
8, "All the people at thy feet," signify all the people
whom thou, coinmandest. The like phrase is found
in Judg. viii. 5, 1 Kings xx. 10, 2 Kings iii. 9.

To set one's foot in a place signifies to take pos-
session of it, as in Deut. i. 36, xi. 24, and other places.
In Daniel, the feet and legs of the image denote a
monarchy succeeding all the rest, the legs and feet
being the extreme parts of the body, or the last parts
of the image.

According to the Indian interpreter, ch, cxiv. legs
and feet of iron, in respect of a king, denote that he
shall be long-lived ; and, on the contrary, legs of
glass signify short life and death.

It was the office of servants to wash the feet of their
master and his guests ; see Gen. xviii. 4 ; xix. 2 ; xliii.
24 ; Judges xix. 21. Hence Abigail's language, 1 Sam.
xxv. 41 ; and see John, 13th chapter. Elisha is said
to have poured water on the hands of Elijah, 2 Kings
iii. 2. This practice is noticed by Virgil, JEn. 1.

" Dant manibus/amuft lymphas, cereremque canistris
Expediunt, tonsisque ferunt mantilla villis."

And Homer, Odyssey, b. 1.

" They reclined in order on their couches and thrones,
And the minist'ring heralds poured water on their hands. 1 '

. FIRE, is the symbol of the Deity.

He appeared in this element at the burning bush,
and on Mount Sinai. Exod. iii. 2; xix. 18.

He showed himself to Isaiah, Ezekiel, and John, in
the midst of fire. Isa. vi. 4 ; Ezek. i. 4 ; Rev. i. 14.

It is said that he will so appear at his second com-
ing. 2 Thes. i. 8.

176 FIRE.

Daniel says, vii. 10, " A fiery stream issued, and
came forth before him."

And he led his people Israel through the desert,
under the form of a pillar of fire. Exod. xiii. 21.

The descent of .the Holy Spirit was denoted by
.the appearance of lambent flames, or tongues of fire.
Acts ii. 3.

God may be compared to fire, chiefly on account
of his anger against sin, which consumes those against
whom it is kindled, as fire does stubble. Deut. xxiv.
and ix. 3 ; xxxii. 22 ; Isa. x. 17 ; Ezek. xxi. 3 ; Heb. xii.
29.

His word is compared to fire. Jer. xxiii. 29.

In Hab. iii. 5, it is said, " Burning coals went forth
at his feet," i. e. the preaching of his word was ac-
companied with punishment against the disobedient
he trode upon them with destroying fire.

And thus in the vision of the Seraphim or Burning
Angels, Isa. vL, they are said to take a live coal from
the altar, and put it to the prophet's mouth, telling
him that his sins were purged, i. e. that he, being now
declared righteous before God, and appointed to be
his prophet, shall be enabled by his words, to bring
down God's fire of destruction upon those against
whom he prophesied.

And thus in Jer. v. 14, " Behold, I will make my
words in thy mouth fire, and this people wood, and it
shall devour them."

Fire is sometimes the symbol of destruction, sick-
ness, or war. It is thus used in Isa. xlii. 25 ; Ixvi. 1 5 ;
Ezek. xxii. 20, 21, 22 ; Zech. xiiL 9; Ps. Ixvi. 12;
Jer. Ixv. 45. ;

FIRE. 177

It is also thus explained by the Indian interpreter
inch. 159 and 209.

It is also the symbol of persecution as, in 1 Peter i.
7 ; iv. 12 ; I Cor. Hi. 13, 15 ; Luke xii. 49-

Fire from heaven, in the symbolical language, de-
notes the combination of persons in authority. Rev. xiii .
13

Coals of fire proceeding from God's mouth, denote
his anger, as in Ps. xviii. 8, 12, 13.

Fire is the symbol of purification, in allusion to the
process of refining. Mai. iii. 2.

It is the symbol of final torment, Mark ix. 44 ;
Matt. xxv. 41. It is of no use disputing whether the
penal fire in the future state be material or not. If
not a material fire, it will possess qualities equally
awful and painful, suited to the nature of those who
are subjected to it. And its perpetuity or perma-
nence is expressed by terms that denote, to say the
least, a very long duration, if not an interminable one.
It is a fire " prepared for the Devil and his angels,"
and therefore may be supposed to last as long as they
last.

One of Daniel's companions was called, Abed, or
rather Obed-nego, i. e. the servant of Nego, by which
name fire was called among the Babylonians ; and that
deity was ascribed to it by the Chaldeans, is shewn
by Herodotus in his Clio* It is well known that fire-
worship has prevailed in Persia for many an age. See
an account of its origin in Prideaux's Connect, v. i.
p. 246, &c., and the alterations made in it by Zoroas-
ter, p. 293, &c. of the same work.

The Persian mOnarchs, the kings of Lacedaemon,
and the Roman emperors, had fire carried before

M

178 FIRE.

them in processions; and so had generals at the head
of their armies. See Xenoph. Cyr. 1. 8. c. 23 ; Herp-
dian, 1. 1. 20 and 50; Eurip. Phceniss. v. 1386.
This custom of carrying fire before kings, as a mark
of honour and grandeur, seems to be alluded to in
Ps. cxix. 105; cxxxii. 17, and in 1 Kings xv. 4.

Xenophon, in his Lacedaemonian Republic, describ-
ing the march of a Spartan king when he goes out to
war, mentions a servant or officer, under the name of
Fire-carrier, who went before him with fire taken from
the altar, at which he had just been sacrificing, to the
boundaries of the Spartan territory, where, sacrificing
again, and then proceeding, a fire, kindled likewise
from this latter sacrifice, goes before him, without
ever being extinguished.

Mark ix. 49, " Every one shall be salted for the
fire, as every sacrifice is salted with salt," L e. (says
Macknight) " Every one shall be salted for the fire of
God's altar," z.:<?. shall be prepared to be offered a
sacrifice to God, holy and acceptable. (See his Har-
mony on the place). Beza has the same view, " That,
as under the law, every sacrifice was to be 'salted
with salt, so it is required of every man, that being
seasoned with the pure and incorrupt word, he con-
secrate himself unto God."

Rev. viii. 5. The fire from, the altar, represents
new commotions in the world, and great calamities
by the righteous judgment of God. .

Rev. xiv. 14. The angel who had power over fire.
An allusion, as Daubuz thinks, to the office of that
priest who had the charge by lot in the temple ser-
vice, to take care of the fire on the altar. Grotius
considers it as denoting the angel who had the office

EIRE.... ..FIRST-BORN. 179

of God's vengeance. According to the theology of
the Jewish doctors, every virtue or power which God
had set over any thing, is called the angel presiding
over that thing.

Ezek. xxxviii. 22, " Fire and brimstone will I rain
upon him," (2. e. upon Gog). Ezek. xxxix. 6, " And
I will send a fire upon Magog."

Compare Rev. xx. 8, 9> where, see Lowman who
is of opinion, that the event may be literally fulfilled
by a combination of enemies to the Christian name.

" It is plain," says Newcome, " that the extraor-
dinary circumstances mentioned in v. 19-22, remain
to be accomplished on the future enemies of the Jews,
when his people are reinstated in God's favour."

FIRST-BORN. Jesus Christ is called the first-
born from the dead," in Col. i. 18, and Rev. i. 5. He
appears to be so called, as being the first who rose
by his own power ; and, as being the first who rose
never to die again.

The first-born, under the Old Testament, may be
considered as types of Christ.

Sometimes the whole Jewish nation is so called, as
in Exod. iv. 22. .

And the Messiah is pointed at in Ps. Ixxxix. 27,
under this title.

And he is owned as such in Rom. viii. 29 ; and
Heb. i. 6.

The phrase " from the dead," or from a state of
death, has an allusion to the destruction of the first-
born of Egypt, and the sparing of the first-born of
Israel, who, in memorial of this mercy, were in future
to be consecrated to God. See Exodus, ch. xii. and xiii.

To the first-born were allotted power and supe-

180 FIRST-BOEN.

riority over the rest of his brethren, hence Jacob's ad-
dress to Reuben, Gen. Ixix. 3 ; and Isaac's reply to
Esau, Gen. xx. 37.

Therefore Christ is the first-born, as being prince
and lord over his brethren. See Heb. ii; 10, 11.
He is the head of the whole creation, and especially
of the new creation, the Church.

To the first-born was assigned the office of priest-
hood, Exod. xxiv. 5, for whom the Levites were af-
terwards accepted; Num. iii. 45.

And of Jesus it is said, " He is a priest for ever
according to the order of Melchizedek." Ps. ex. 3 ;
Heb. iii. 1 ; Heb. v. 5, 6. And by one offering he
hathperfected for'ever them that are sanctified; Heb. x.-
1 4. And he could not have been a true priest, if he
had not, through the Eternal Spirit, offered himself
without spot to God, and with his own blood entered
into the holy place, having obtained eternal redemp-
tion for us.

The first-born were holy and consecrated to God.
Exod. xiii. 1. " Sanctify unto me all the first-born,
whatsoever operieth the womb among the children of
Israel, both of man and of beast, it is mine." It is af-
terwards said, verse 13, " All the first-born of man
among thy children thou shalt redeem." To this
there is allusion in 1 Peter i. 18, where Christians are
said to be redeemed, " not with silver or gold, but with
the precious blood of Christ."

Christ also was consecrated to the service of God,
as the first-born, when he was inaugurated by baptism.
Matt. iii. 17-

The first-born also sanctified their brethren, and as
it were preserved them in life. Rightly, therefore,

FIRST-BORN FISHES FLESH. 181

the Apostle. affirms, Heb. ii. 11. Both he that sanc-
tifieth, and they that are sanctified, are all of one,
wherefore he is not ashamed to call them brethren.

The first-born had a double share of the inheri-
tance, as being the prop and ornament of the family.
Deut. xxi. 17. And Christ is constituted heir of aU
things.' See Heb. i. 2; Luke xxii. 29 ; Ps. ii. 8;
Eph. i. 3; Ps. Ixviii. 19; Rom. viii. 17.

See this doctrine beautifully stated by Paul in
Col. i. 12-22.

FISHES. A sea being considered as a kingdom
or empire, the living creatures in it, must be the
typical fishes ', or men.

But if a sea be considered in respect only of the
waters, of which it is a collection, then the waters will
signify the common people ; and the fisheSj or the
creatures in the sea, living, as having a power to act,
will! denote their rulers. And in this sense are the
fishes mentioned in Ezek. xxix. 4, 5, explained by the
Targum of the " Princes of Pharaoh." Newcome
thinks there is here an allusion to the heavy loss
which Apries and his Egyptian army sustained in the
expedition against the Cyreneans, towards whom they
must have marched over the desert. Herod. 2. 161.
Apries himself did not fall in the battle, but was taken
prisoner by Amasis, and strangled by the Egyptians.
Herod. 2, 169; Jer. Ixiv. 30.

See Matt. iv. 19 ; Jer. xvi. 16 ; Hab. i. 14 ; Matt. xiii.
47.- - -

FLESH, signifies the riches, goods, and possessions
of any person or subject, conquered, oppressed, or
slain, as the case is.

Thus, in Ps. Ixxiv. 14, the meat or flesh there men-

182 FLESH......FLY.

tioned, is the riches and spoils of Pharaoh and the
Egyptians.

See also Isa. xvii. 4 ; Micah, iii. 2, 3 ; Zech. xi. 9-
16 ; in all which places flesh is explained by the Tar-
gum, of riches and substance.

And thus, in Dan. vii. 5, to " devour much flesh,"
is to conquer and spoil many enemies of their lands
and possessions.

All the Oneirocritics concur in the same exposition
of this symbol. In ch. 283, they say, " That if any
one dreams that he finds or eats the flesh of dragons,
he shall obtain riches proportionable from a great
king ;" which is like that of the Israelites eating the
flesh of the leviathan or dragon the king of Egypt
in the wilderness. Ps. Ixxiv. 13, 14.

And again, in ch. 285, " To dream of eating the
flesh of a scorpion, denotes the being possessed of the
estate of such an enemy, as answers to the significa-
tion of the symbol."

And the Indian, in ch. 87 9 says compendiously,
" Flesh is universally interpreted of riches."

To the same purpose speaks also Artemidorus, who,
in lib. 3, c. 23, says, " That it is not good for a rich
man to dream that he eats his own flesh, for it signi-
fies the utter wasting of his riches or substance."

So also in lib. 1, c. 72, to " dream of eating the flesh
of any wild beast, denotes the being greatly enriched
by the substance of enemies."

FLY. The name Beelzebub given in the New
Testament to the prince of demons, signifies "Lord
of Flies ;" and the fly was his hieroglyphic, as. Jerome
remarks, because he never ceases to infest the human

FLY. FOREHEAD. 1 83

race, and to try all methods by which he may annoy
and injure them.

See under See.

FOREHEAD, signifies the public profession or
appearance before men.

So the Indian Interpreter, ch. 56, says, " The fore-
head and nose denote comeliness and riches before
men." And Artemidorus says, that the forehead sig-
nifies liberty of speech.

Of old, servants were stigmatized in their forehead
with their master's mark. Martial, lib. 2, ep. 29, lib.
3, ep. 21, lib. 8, ep. 75; Seneca de Ira, 1. 3, c. 3;
Plutarch in Nicia.

This was forbid the Jews, in Lev. xix. 28 ; only
the high-priest on his forehead bore a plate or crown
of gold, on which the name of God was written, to
shew that the priest was his servant, and that all his
service was consecrated to God only.

Hence, to " receive a mark in one's forehead," sig-
nifies to make an open profession of belonging to that
person or party, whose mark is said to be received.

Rev. xiii. 16, to receive a mark in the right hand,
or in their foreheads.

Some think there is here an allusion to the manner
in which Ptolemy Philopater persecuted the Jews.
See Prideaux' Connect, part 2. 1. 2.

Sometimes the stigmata or marks put on the fore-
head, were the symbol of disgrace and punishment,
as Diogenes Laertius says of the father of Bion, lib. 4,
" That he received a brand on his forehead, as a mark
of the anger of his master."

That captives, and others whom the ancients re-
duced to subjection, were thus marked; Plutarch tells

184 FOREHEAD.

us, in PericL, "That the Athenians marked an owl
on their captives."

Idolaters, by that ceremony, used to consecrate
themselves to their false deities. The marks used on
these occasions were various. Sometimes they con-
tained the name of the god, sometimes his particular
ensign, as the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the trident of
Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, &c. ; or, lastly, they
marked themselves with some mystical number where-
by the god's name was described. Thus the Sun, who
was signified by the number 608, is said to have, been
represented by these two numeral letters XH.

These three ways of stigmatizing are all expressed
in Rev. xiii. 16, 17) " And he causeth all, both small
.and great, rich and poor, free and bond, to receive a
mark in their right hand, or in their foreheads ; and
that no man might buy or sell, save he that had the
mark, or the name of the beast, or the number of .his

name."

See Potter's Antiq. of Greece, v. 1, p. 75.

Soldiers also wore the names of their leaders or
generals impressed upon their bodies, .as we learn
from Vegetius de Re milit. lib. 2. c. 5. And in this
sense some explain Paul's remark in Gal. vi. 17, " I
bear in my body the marks (rtypumi) of the Lord Je-
sus," meaning the .scars he received from stripes,
chains, &c. in the service of the Gospel.

See also Isa. xliv. 5, thus rendered by the Septua-
gint, " And another shall write upon his hand, I be-
. long to God." See Lowth's note on the passage,
where he observes, " The Christians seem to iave
imitated this practice, by what Procopius says on
this place of Isaiah : ' Because many marked their

FOREHEAD. 185

wrists or their arms with the sign of the cross, or with
the name of Christ.'"

Whole people or nations were sometime so inscri-
bed. That the Babylonians, Daciaris, and others
were, we learn from Pliny, Herodian, &c. That the
Arabians were, Golius informs us. The Jews say,
that king Jehoiakim wore the name of the idol Codo-
nazar branded on his skin.

From these customs we may now conclude what
meaning to attach to the phrase in Rev. xxii. 4> " And
his name shall be in their foreheads," viz. that such
are the servants of the living God, the ministers of
the King of kings, whom he hath redeemed by his
own blood, Acts xx. 28, Titus ii. 14 ; so that they are
his peculiar people, 1 Peter ii. 9> to celebrate the Di-
vine .virtues. They serve him day and night in his
temple, Rev. vii. 15, as attendants on the celestial
throne. Once they wore the mark of the beast and
of Satan, but after they were redeemed, they bore the
mark of the living God impressed upon them, by re-
generation and sanctification. Eph. iv. 22-24.

It. implies also, that such are the soldiers of the
Lord of Hosts, who form his encampment, under the
banner of Him " who stands up for an ensign to the
people^' Isa. xi. 10; wearing the swjord of the Spirit,
the shield of faith, and the breastplate of righteous-
ness.

It implies that they are the priests of God, Rev. i.
5; 1 Peter ii. 9. Under the Old Testament, the
high-priest alone wore the plate of God; but now, all
Christians are constituted kings and priests unto God
even the Father. And therefore those who stand with

186 FOREHEAD FOREST.

the Lamb on Mount Sion, Rev. xiv. 1, have the Fa-
ther's name written on their foreheads.

The name here inscribed, is supposed to be the
name Jehovah? which is his memorial, Hosea xii. 5 ;
Zech. xiv. 20 ; Isa. Ixiv, 5. As to the manner of in-
scribing, not to pursue sacred analogies too minutely,
we may adopt Paul's expression 2 Cor. iii. 3, " writ-
ten not with ink, but with the Spirit of the living
God." See also 2 Cor. i. 21, Eph. iv. 38.

The name is written on the forehead, obviously
because it is the most conspicuous part, whatever is
on the forehead, cannot be concealed. As Cicero
says, " Frons est tacitus mentis sermo ;" and Pliny
calls it, " Omnium hominis affectuum index," Hist.
Nat. 1. 11, cap. 37- The name of God, therefore,
being on their foreheads, is an open confession that
they profess publicly before the world that they be-
long to him, and not to Idolatry, Anticbristianism,
the Beast, or Satan. It is said of Paul, Acts ix. 15,
" He is a chosen vessel unto me, to bear my name
before the Gentiles, and kings, and the children of
Israel." For I will shew him how great things he
must suffer for my name's sake.

FOREST, is used symbolically to denote a city,
kingdom, polity, or the like. Ezek. xx. 46, " Forest
of the south."

Ezekiel was in the northern part of Chaldea ; and
therefore Judea was to the south of him. Seeker
supposes that a city is called a forest, rather from its
inhabitants than its buildings.

Devoted kingdoms are elsewhere represented under
the image of a forest, which God threatened to burn
or cut down. See Isaiah x. 17> 18, 19> 34, where the

FOREST..... .FORNICATION. 187

briers and thorns denote the common people ; the
glory of the forest are the nobles and those of highest
rank and importance.

See also Isaiah xxxvii. 24, where Sennacherib is
described as boasting thus of his invasion of Jerusa-
lem:

" Thou hast said,

By the multitude of my chariots have I ascended
The height of the mountains, the sides of Lebanon ;
And I will cut down his tallest cedars, his choicest fir-trees>
And I will penetrate into his extreme retreats, his richest fo-
rests." LOWTH'S VERSION.

See Jerem. xxi. 14, xxii. 7, xlvi. 23, and Zech. xi.
2, where Newcome observes, that under these images
the fall of mighty men, and the subversion of the
Jewish polity, are represented.

Isaiah xxxii. 19*

" But the hail shall fall, and the forest be brought down,
And the city shall be laid level with the plain."

Lowth acknowledges this passage to be very obscure.
He supposes the city to be Nineveh or Babylon; and
quotes Ephrsem Syrus on the place, who interprets it
" Saltus, i. e. Assyriorum regnum civitas, t. e, mag-
nifica Assyriorum castra."

Lyra expounds these words in a singular way.
" The hail," says he, " that is, the multitude of the
Roman army, shall be at the falling down of the fo-
rest, i. e. at the overthrow of the temple and palace."
Something parallel to the passage in Isaiah may be
found in Rev. xvi. 21, at the downfall of the mystic
Babylon. " And there fell upon men a great hail out
of heaven, every stone about the weight of a talent."
See under Hail.

FORNICATION. See under Woman.

188 FOUNTAIN.

FOUNTAIN, or stream of living, z. <?. of con-
tinually flowing water, in opposition to standing or
stagnant pools, is the symbol of refreshment to the
weary, and also denotes the perpetuity and inex-
haustible nature of spiritual comforts and refresh-
ments afforded to the saints by the Holy Spirit, and
by the public worship of God. It was such as these
the Psalmist thirsted after, as the hart panteth for the
water-brook, when he was persecuted and driven from
his throne, " God being the fountain of living waters."

After the same manner, Wisdom, on account of its
usefulness and delight, is compared, in Prov. xviii. 4,
to a flowing brook, which is generally clear, as well
as shallow ; a fit emblem of the ingenuous mind, which
knows no disguise or dissimulation, and whose de-
signs are easily discovered, because, as good is always
its object, it affects no concealment.

Zech. xiii. 1,

" In that day there shall be a fountain opened
To the house of David, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
For sin, and for defilement."

The blood of Christ, which cleanseth from all sin
(1 John i. 7), is manifestly here intended, the Jews
being, upon their repentance and conversion, to be
admitted to all the privileges of the Christian cove-
nant. The Hebrew words, rendered sin and defile-
ment, are legal terms; the former denotes sin gene-
rally, or any transgression of the law which required
atonement ; the latter is used for that uncleanness
which secluded man from all intercourse with God
and holy things. Whatever efficacy legal sacrifices
had in purifying the people, the same is ascribed to
the blood of Christ in the Gospel dispensation. In

FOUNTAIN. 189

the term " defilement/' there is an allusion to the
water of separation or of purification for sin, Num.
xix. 9. Means of purification from moral pollution
shall be afforded to the Jews by the terms of the
Christian covenant. See. Blayney.

Joel iii. 18, " A fountain shall come forth from the
house of Jehovah."

In this verse, either the times of the Messiah are
described, or we have a description of Jerusalem after
its final restoration, when a golden age shall commence
among its inhabitants, and when the knowledge of God
and of his Christ shall a second time be widely dif-
fused from it. See Ezek. xlvii. S ; Zech. xiv. 8.
.Fountain or pool of Siloam.

One of the most remarkable ceremonies performed
at the Feast of Tabernacles, was the libation or pour-
ing out of water, .drawn from the fountain or pool of
Siloam, upon the altar. As, according to the Jews
themselves, this water was an emblem of the Holy
Spirit, Jesus Ghrist manifestly alluded to, it, when he
cried, saying, " If any man thirst, let him come unto
me and drink."

Prov.. v. 16, " Let thy fountains (or rather springs)
be dispersed abroad," c. e. May your posterity be
numerous.

Deut. xxxiii. 28, The fountain of Jacob," i. e. The
people that proceed from Jacob.

Prov. v. 18, "Let thy fountain be blessed," i. e.
Let thy wife be blessed With children, barrenness
being esteemed a curse.

Prov. xiiu 14,

" The law of the wise is a fountain of life."

190 FOUNTAIN.... ..FOUR.

(Or rather, as Durell renders,)

" The laws are to the wise a fountain of life ;
To the rebellious, they are the snaies of death."

Eccl. xii. 6, " Ere the pitcher be broken at the
fountain," i. e. Before the circulation of the blood be
stopped at the heart.

Ps. Ixviii. 26, " Bless the Lord from the fountain
of Israel," i. e. Ye who are sprung from the stock of
Israel.

Rev. viii. 10, " Fountains of waters." Rev.xiv. 7 ;
Rev. xvi. 4. .

See Lowman's excellent notes on the first and third
of these passages.

Hosea xiii. 15, " His fountains shall be dried up,"
i. e. His prosperous condition and its attendant bless-
ings shall cease.

As fountains of water may be considered as neces-
saries to the support of life, so the drying up of these
symbolically expresses a scarcity of things necessary.
See the above passage in Hosea xiii. 15, and Isaiah
xix. 5.

Vitringa interprets Rev. viii. 10, of the heresy of
Arius, and the third part of the rivers to mean the
third part of Christendom, which was then divided
into East, West, and South.

Isaiah has a beautiful passage in allusion to the
Exodus, expressive of God's mercy to them in pass-
ing through the desart. See ch. xli. 18. .

FOUR is a symbolical number, denoting a univer-
sality of the matters comprised.

As in Jer. xlix. 36, The four winds, signify all the
winds.

FOUR. 191

Isa. xi. 12, The four corners of the earth, denote
all parts of the earth.

Ezek. vii. 2, The four corners of the land, i. e. all
parts of Judea. " And therefore," as Philo says,
" Four is a number of universality in nature."

Restitution in some cases was to be made fourfold,
Exod. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xii. 6 ; Luke xix. 8.

We read also of four bowls, four rings, four rows
of stones, &c.

In Prov. ch. xxx. the enumeration of several sub-
jects is limited to four. See verses 15, 18, 21, 24, 29-

Both Ezekiel and St John describe four living
creatures, as seen in a vision, with four faces and four
wings. .

Daniel speaks of the four great monarchies, as four
great beasts that came up from the sea. We read
also, ch. viii. 8, of four notable horns.

Zechariah. beholds also four horns, four carpenters,
and four chariots, i. 18, 20 ; vi. 1.

Exod. xxvii. 1 , The altar of burnt offerings is com-
manded to be made four-square. .

And in Rev. xxi. 16, It is said of the New Jerusa-
lem, that the city lieth four-square.

Four may justly, therefore, be termed a mystic
number. The four angels mentioned, Rev. xix. 15,
have been conceived by some to represent the Turkish
tetrarchies, or the four kingdoms of the Turks seated
on the Euphrates. But as four is a perfect number,
denoting universality, it may, as Lowman observes,
denote here the whole power of these destroyers,
gathered together from every quarter of the land they
dwelt in.

192 FOX.

FOX is the symbol of tyrannical kings land crafty
persecutors.

: Luke xiii. 32, " Go and tell that foxj'' namely,
Herod.

All know the character of the animal, from the
many fables and proverbs respecting it ; so that the
fox is generally considered to be the representative of
cunning, crafty, or deceitful persons. " What is an
opprobrious and malicious man, but a fox?" says
Epictetus, in Arrian, lib. 1. cap. 3. And Suidas, " A
fox is not to be won by gifts." And Plutarch, in his
Life of Lysander, "If a lion's skin is not enough, let
a fox's be added ;" i. e. if power and strength be not
sufficient, cunning must be joined to them. Aga-
memnon is said by Homer to be xsg^aAeo'pgwv, to be
endued with a fox's disposition ; and Pompey is de-
scribed by Plutarch as having more of the fox than
the lion in him. And Persius says, Sat. 5,

" Astutum rapido servos sub pectore vulpem "
And Aristophanes has compared soldiers to foxes,
Hipp. Act. 2, sc. 2. Ezekiel xiii. 4, says, " Thy pro-
phets, O Israel, are like the foxes in the deserts ;" i. e.
as Newcome observes, " They seize their prey in a
cunning and cowardly manner, and then fly into lurk-
ing-places." Some have gone so far, as to suppose
our Saviour spoke figuratively, rather than literally,
when he said, Matt. viii. 20, " Foxes have holes or
caverns, and the birds of the air have places to roost
in; but the Son of Man hath not where to lay his
head." They suppose he means by foxes the false
teachers among the Jews ; but this seems to be strain-
ing things too much.

FROGS FURNACE. 193

FROGS are represented by Aristophanes and Ju-
venal as the proper inhabitants of the Stygian Lake.
See Arist. Ranae; Juv. Sat. 2, v. 150.

Horace gives them the epithet of nasty, Epod. 5,
v. 19, and makes their blood an ingredient in sorti-
legious charms.

The same epithet is also given them in Ovid, Met.
06 ; and Martial, b. 10, Ep> 37-

The Oriental Oneirocritics are not so clear on this
point as they usually are ; for they content themselves
with ranking the frogs among serpents and other
creeping things, taking them to signify enemies in
general.

Philo says, " They are the symbol of vain opinions
and glory, having only noise and sounds void of rea-

son."

Artemidorus says, "Frogs signify impostors and
flatterers, and bode good to them that get their living
out of the common people."

And the frog by the Egyptians was made the sym-
bol of an impudent, quick-sighted fellow; the frog,
according to them, having blood nowhere else than in
its eyes. See Horap. Hierogl. 1. 2.

Rev. -xvi. 13, "I saw three unclean spirits like
frogs ;" a plain allusion to the plagues of Egypt.

Daubuz supposes the three unclean spirits to be the
monks,, the religious knights, and the secular clergy
of the Roman church.

Lowman says, " They seem to intimate some con-
federacy of the principal Popish powers."

FURNACE is used in Scripture to denote, meta-
phorically, a place of great affliction. So Deut. iv.
20, " The Lord hath taken you and brought you

N

194 EURNACE.;....GARI)EN.

forth out of the iron furnace, out of Egypt." See
also Jer. xi. 4.

Fire of a furnace, for purifying metals, is always
used to signify such afflictions as God sends for the
amendment of men. So in Jer. ix. 7, " I will melt
them and try them ;" if he could by such means
purify their manners, since all others had proved in-
effectual for their amendment.

See the process beautifully enlarged upon in Ezek.
xxii. 1 7-23, where the term furnace might more fitly
be rendered

Crucible, the vessel in which metals are fused. And
so, in Ps. xii. 7, " Silver refined in a crucible of
earth." Refiners' crucibles are to this day made of
earth.

The place of torment seems to be called a furnace,
Matt. xiii. 42, 50.

GARDEN is the symbol of prosperity and fruit-
fulness.

Job viii. 16,

" He is green before the sun,
And his branch sbooteth forth in his garden."

Isa. li. 3,

" He shall make her wilderness like Eden,
And her desert like the garden of Jehovah ;
Joy and gladness shall be found in her,
Thanksgiving, and the voice of melody."

The world in general is sometimes spoken of as a
garden, and kings and great men as tall trees in it.
Thus, Ezek. xxxi. 8, 9, speaking of Pharoah,

* u The cedars in the garden of God could not hide him,
v '. The fir-trees were not like his boughs,

And the plane-trees were not as his branches :

GARDEN. 195

Not; any tree in the garden of God

Was like unto him in his beauty.

I made him beautiful in the multitude of his branches,

So that all the trees of Eden envied him,

Which were in the garden of God."

In this sense, also, Tertullian explains the parable
in Luke xiii. 1 9, of the grain of mustard seed cast
into the garden, by which he understands Christ, who
came into this world. And see Isa. Ixi. 11,

" Surely, as the earth pusheth forth her tender shoots,
And as a garden maketh her seed to germinate,
So, shall the Lord Jehovah cause righteousness to spring

forth,
And praise, in the presence of all the nations."

Nothing is more frequent among the Fathers, than
under the symbol of a garden to describe the doctrine
of grace. Thus Jerome, on Jer. xxix. says, " The
sacred doctrine is called a garden, as being a paradise
of delights, where also hope and good works flourish."
See Bernard on Cant. 4, and Gregory on Ezekiel,
homily 8.

The Church is often compared to a garden by the
Prophets. Thus, Isa. Iviii. 11, " Thou shalt be like
a well watered garden;" and Jer. xxxi. 12, "And
their souls shall be as a well watered garden."
. As to those passages in the Song of Songs, where
a garden is mentioned, no note is to be taken of
them, farther than as simple and literal comparisons,
as it is more than doubtful whether that book has any
spiritual meaning, or is any thing more than an epi-
thalamium, or marriage ode, in relation to Solomon's
espousals, and in praise of the divine institution of
holy wedlock. The mystical sense seems to have
been first adopted by some of the Fathers, who, with
more piety than judgment, as Dufell observes, thought

196 GARDEN.

that, as Paul compares the union of Christ with his
church to a marriage, .this poem ought also to be in-
terpreted with reference to the same subject.

But how is it consistent with this idea, that neither
the name of God nor of Christ ever occurs in it ?
that there is not one religious or moral sentiment to
be found in it ?- that it is not once either quoted or
in the most distant manner alluded to in any part of
the New Testament, or in any other part of the sacred
writings ? that it is not directed to be read in the
churches ? and that those who attempt to trace the
allegory in every part, are soon lost in an inextricable
labyrinth ? The mere similarity, real or supposed, of
some expressions in the New Testament, proves no-
thing ; neither is mere length of time during which
the opinion of its mystical meaning has been held, a
solid foundation for the basis of truth to rest upon.

Garden is the symbol of the church triumphant.
Luke xxiii. 43, " This day shalt thou be with me in
paradise," i..e. in a garden of pleasure. See also
2 Cor. xii. 4, and Rev. ii. 7- The Turks or Maho-
medans, it is well known, describe their heaven under
this image. See the Koran.

The people of God are often spoken of as plants.
Ps. Ixxx. 8,

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt,
Thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it."

See Isa. v. 1, &c., Jer. ii. 21, and other places. And
hence good works are so often adverted to under the
image of fruit. And God is spoken of as a vine-
dresser, John xv. 1 ; and Paul uses similar phrases in
1 Cor. iii. 6, " I have planted, Apollos watered, and
God hath given the increase."

GARDEN. 197

Gardens and vineyards, in ancient times, were sur-
rounded with walls, and guarded by watchmen. To
this there is allusion in Jer. xxvii. 5,

" I Jehovah keep it,
I will water it every moment,
I will take care of it by night,
I will keep guard over it by day."

To those who admire descriptions of this kind,
Homer's account of the gardens of Alcinous, in Odys-
sey, 1. 7, will give gratification. The passage is too
long to be transcribed here at large ; the following is
part of Pope's version :

" Tall thriving trees confessed the fruitful mould,
The reddening apple ripens here to gold,
Here the blue./?y with luscious juice o'erflows,
With deeper red the full pomegranate glows.
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourish round the year."

The Apostle has a still finer enumeration, when he
describes the fruits of the Spirit, Gal. v. 22, love, joy,
peace, concord, benignity, goodness, faith, meekness,
temperance. Compare Titus ii. 14.

Gardens were employed to produce aromatic herbs
and flowers ; and hence we find the term odour, sa-
vour, or fragrance^ in use among eastern writers.
Thus Paul says, " We are unto God a sweet odour
in Christ;" and similar passages. And in another
place, Phil. iv. 17> "I desire fruit that may abound to
your account. But I have all, and abound : I am full,
having received from Epaphroditus the things which
were sent from you, an odour of a sweet smell"

Gardens were sometimes used as places of sepul-
ture. Thus Manasseh was buried in the garden of
his own house, 2 Kings xxi. 18 ; and that wherein the

198 GARDEN r ......GARMENTS.

Saviour was interred, was in Joseph's garden, Mark
xv. 46. Suetonius says of Galba, that he was buried
in his own gardens in the. Aurelian Way. And Onu-
phrius Pancrinius says, " In the Flaminian, Appian,
and other ways, there still appear many urns and
ancient sepulchres, almost consumed with age/'

GARMENTS are naturally used to denote .the
outward appearance.

Clean garments are an emblem of inward purity.

White garments also denote holiness of life and
purity of conscience ; Ps. li- 7, Isa. i. 18, Eccl. ix.
7,8. :

They were the tokens of joy and pleasure; Eccl.
ix. 8; Isa. 1H..1, Ixi. 10.

Kings and nobles were arrayed in white garments ;
so were the common people on festive days.

God gave the Jewish priests white garments, as
ensigns of honour, as well as of purity ; Exod. xxviii.
2, 40 ; Lev. xvi. 4.

Hence, to be clothed in white signifies, in the pro-
phetic style, to be prosperous and successful to be
honoured and rewarded.

Not to defile one's garments is a Hebrew phrase,
and is also symbolical, denoting, not to pollute one's
self with idolatry, and to abstain from all inferior
kinds of pollution. See Rev. iii. 4, " Thou hast a
few names,'' i. e. persons, " even in Sardis, who have
not defiled their garments," i. e. who have preserved
themselves from the general corruption, "and they
shall walk with me in white, for they deserve it."
White or shining garments are here promised, as
marks of favour and distinction. Thus Pharaoh
honoured Joseph, by arraying him in vestures of fine

GARMENTS, 199

linen,; Gen. xli. 42. And in Rev. xix. 8 r fine linen is
interpreted to mean the righteousness of saints, as.
well as a mark of honour. The bride is said to be
" arrayed in it, clean and white," in allusion to the
custom in the eastern nations ; a custom still existing,
for the bridegroom to present the bride with garments.
It was used in the times of the patriarchs, and was the
custom among the Greeks and Romans. Eurip.
Helen, v. 1448 ; Terence, Heaut. act 5, sc. 1 ; Odyss.
5, 127 ; Zozimus, 1. 5, p. 290.

In the primitive church, persons, so soon as bap-
tized, received new and white garments, in token of
their being cleansed from all past sins, and as an em-
blem of that innocence and purity to which they had
then bound themselves. Hence they were called
candidati, from candidus, white, t.nd hence our Eng-
lish term candidate. These garments they wore for
seven days, and then they were laid up as an evidence
against them if they ever revolted from their holy
profession which they had embraced and publicly
made ; and, in this sense, not to defile one's garments
is, not to act contrary to our baptismal vow and en-
gagements.

The Apostle seems to have had an eye on this,
when he wrote to the Galatians, iii. 27, " As many of
you as have been baptised into Christ, have put on
Christ." Lactantius well expresses this in his hymn
on the resurrection of the Saviour,-

" Cum puras animas sacra lavacra beant,
Candidus egreditur nitidis exercitu undis,

Atque vetua vitium purgat in amne novo,
Fulgentis animas vestis quoque Candida signat," &c.

And Cyril says, on the same subject, Ev&v? w

200 GARMENTS.

fan;, &Q> " As . soon as, therefore, ye have gone inj
ye put off your garment, which indeed is the image
of the old man and his works ;. having put it off, ye
became naked, in imitation of Christ, who was strip-
ped when he was crucified." See Epb. iv. 22-24,
where the language is particularly appropriate, the
pagan Ephesians being noted for the luxury of their
dress, as may be seen in Athenaeus, lib. 12, who in-
troduces Antiphanes, saying, " Quam regionem incolit
haec turba, unde prorupit, an Jones sunt, molles, deli-
catis vestibus amicti, voluptate diffluentes ?"

Philo makes the garment the symbol of our reason,
hence, to observe one's garments is to make reason
the rule of one's actions.

To bestow garments, as is sometimes done by
eastern, princes, is a great honour and mark of favour
T if a stole or tunic, very great ; if with it he adds
the great cloak or robe,, it is a complete favour. The
highest mark of esteem and love is when the prince
gives the garments from his own body, as Jonathan
did to David, 1 Sam. xviii. 4.

Garments of scarlet were worn by the Roman em-
perors, as their proper habit. Hence Pilate's soldiers,
as being Romans, in derision clothed our Saviour as a
king, by putting on him a scarlet robe; Matt, xxvii.
28. '

Garments of sackcloth. Sackcloth signifies any
matter of which sacks were anciently made, which
was generally of skins without dressing. The ancient
prophets were for most part clothed thus ; hence the
false prophets affected this garb, for which God up-
braids them in Zech. xiii. 4, " Neither shall they wear
a garment of hair to deceive." And so our Lord de-

GARMENTS. 201

scribes that sort of men, Matt. vii. 15, " Beware of
false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing?

The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, xi. 37,
in enumerating the great things which have been
done and suffered, through faith, by prophets and
other righteous persons, mentions this, "that they
wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins, being
destitute, afflicted, tormented ;" alluding to the per-
secutions to which many of them were exposed from
idolatrous princes. That Elijah was habited in this
manner is well known, 2 Kings i. 8. Clement, in his
First Epistle to the Corinthians, says, " Let us be
imitators of those who went about in goat-skins and
sheep-skins, preaching the coming of Christ; we
mean Elias, and Eliseus, and Ezekiel, the prophets."
Elijah, as a sign that he considered Elisha his suc-
cessor, left him his mantle, which the latter put on,
having rent and cast away his own clothes, 2 Kings
ii. 12, 13 ; and, therefore, when the sons of the pro-
phets saw him with that garment, they said imme-
diately " that the spirit of Elijah rested on Elisha."
So Isaiah, ch. xx. 2, had a sackcloth upon his loins as
a prophet, and John Baptist wore something similar,
Matt. Hi. 4, not only as a prophet, but also as a Nazarite.

Sackcloth was also the habit of mourners and per-
sons in affliction ; Gen. xxxvii. 34, 2 Kings vi. 30,
Ps. xxx. 1 1, Isa. 1. 3 : and perhaps the prophets wore
it as a sign of their mourning for the sins of the
people, and for the dishonour their God suffered
thereby ; and hence all of them preached repentance.

The filthy garments of Joshua the high priest, in
Zech. iii. 3, are the squalid and polluted garments of
a captive ; and the removal of them, and clothing him

202 GARMENTS......GATES.

with goodly apparel, probably imports that the priestly
office was to be resumed and exercised with decency
and splendour.

The Phoenicians, in a time of misery, put on sack-
cloth and sat on the dunghill, as appears from Me-
nander, whose words are preserved by Porphyry in
his Book de Abstinentia, 1. 4, 1 5.

The Romans had also the same custom, and hence
black and dirty garments are, in the Oneirocritics, the
symbols of great affliction.

There is a sublime passage in Isaiah Ixiii. 1, &c.
where the Messiah seems to be described in the habit
of a conqueror after some great victory :

QUEST. " Who is this that cometh from Edom ?

With garments deeply died from Bozrah ;
This that is magnificent in his apparel,
Marching on in the greatness of his strength ?
ANS. I who publish righteousness, and am mighty to save.
QUEST. Why is thine apparel red,

And thy garments as one that treadeth the wine-
vat?
ANS. I have trodden the wine- vat alone,

. And of the people there was none with me."

(See LOWTH on the place.)

See Rev. xix. 13.

"When the apparel of Supreme Deity is attempted
to be described, it is in such terms as these, Ps. civ.
1,2,

" Thou art clothed with honour and with majesty,
Thou coverest thyself about with light as with a garment,"
&c.

GATES are sometimes put for cities, as in Isa. xiv.
31,

" Howl, O gate ; cry out, O city."

GATES. 203

.: Lain; ii. 9,

' >* Her gates are sunk- into the earth."
Ps. cxlyii. 13,

" He hath strengthened the bars of thy gates,
He hath blessed thy children within thee."

They are the symbol of power, government, secu-
rity ; justice being originally administered without
the gates of cities. The gate of the city was the
forum or place of public concourse. Prov. i. 21 ;
viii. 3. There also was the court of judicature held,
for trying all causes, and deciding all affairs. There
also was the market, where corn and provisions were
sold. See Dent. xxv. 7 ; Ruth iv. 1, 9 ; 2 Sam. xv.
2; 2 Chron. xviii. 9; Lam. v. 14; Ps. cxxvii. 5;
Prov. xxii. 22, xxiv. 7 xxxi. 23 ; Amos v. 15.

The square town, which is the principal entrance
to the Alhambra, or red palace of the Moorish kings
in Grenada, from its being the place where justice was
summarily administered, was sty led the Gate of Judg-
ment.

The Turkish government is also known at this day,
' by the name of the Ottoman Porte, because the royal
palace of the Turks is wont to be called Porta. Thus
Leunclavius, Hist. Turc. 1. 13, " Adeoque panels rem
omnem expediam, imperio suo totam subjecit Euro-
paeam Rumeliam et Portam seu regiam suam ad Var-
darim Geuizem transtulit."

Isa, Ix. 11,

** Thy gates shall be open continually,
By day or by night, they ahull not be shut,"

denoting the security of God's people ; for, gates open,
are a sign of peace ; gates shut, of fear, or of a state

204 GATES.

of war, or of affliction, misery, and desolation. John xx.
19. Caesar de Bello Gall. 1. 3. c. 4,portas clauserunt.
Jer. xx. 19, where the prophet says, " The cities of
the south are shut up, and none openeth," meaning
that they were uninhabited, and of course the gates
were kept shut, and not opened for the admission of
passengers to and fro.
In Isa. xxix. 21,

" Who bewildered the poor man in speaking,
And laid snares for him that pleaded in the gate,"

there is allusion to what is before mentioned, namely,
the distribution of justice. Shaw, in his Travels, says,
" They are heard by the treasurer, master of the
horse, and other principal officers of the regency of
Algiers, who sit constantly in the gate of the palace
for that purpose," p. 315 fol. He adds, in a note,
" The Ottoman Court likewise seems to have been
called the Port, from the distribution of justice, and
the dispatch of public business, that is carried on in
the gates of it."

The prophet Amos has a reference to the same cus-
tom, v. 10,

" Ye that hate him who reproveth in the gate,
And abhor him who speaketh uprightly."

Selden has this quotation from Maimonides, " In
urbe qualibet Israelitica constituebant Synedrium
minus, cujus sedes in porta urbis."

There is a well-known sense of the term gate, which
refers to it either a* the cause of something done or
intended, or else as the medium leading to some end.
In this sense Jacob speaks of the visionary ladder ; he
calls it " the gate of heaven;" and our Lord speaks
of the broad and narrow gate and way, the one lead-

GATES. 205

ing to life, the other to perdition, Matt. ch. vii. ;
Luke xiii. 24.

The cause of joy or grief is called a gate by the
poets. Thus, Ovid, lib. 2. de Porto, Eleg. 7, " laetitise
janua clausa meae;" and lib. 1. de Remed. Amor. " ar-
tis tristissima janua nostrae."
And Lucretius, 1. 3. v. 830,

" Haud igitur Lethi prseclusa est janua menti."
And Ovid, lib. 1. met.,

" Prseclusaque janua lethi,
Sternum nostros luctus extendit in aevum."

It would appear that altars were formerly erected
before the gates. See 2 Kings, xxiii. 8, " He brake
down the high places of the gates that were in the
entering in of the gate of Joshua, the governor of the
city, which were on a man's left hand at the gate of
the city." And Acts xiv. 13, " Then the priest of Ju-
piter, who was before their city, brought filletted oxen
to the gates, and would have offered sacrifice with
the people." Jupiter was accounted the tutelar deity
of the place, and his temple stood near the gates.

In Matt. xvi. 18, there is a well-known passage to
this effect : " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will
I build my church, and the gates of hades, i.e. death,
shall not prevail against it." The gate of hades is a
natural periphrasis for death itself, and corresponds!
with Hezekiah's expression in Isa. xxxviii. 10,

"I shall pass through the gates of the grave,
I am deprived of the residue of my years."

In the Wisdom of Solomon, we have a similar ex-
pression, ch. xvi. 13, " Thou hast power of life and
death, thou leadest to the gates of hades, and bringest
up again."

206 GATES......GEMS.

And Homer makes Achilles say,

" Who can think one thing and another tell*
-My soul detests him as the gates of hell."

That is, I hate him as death, or I hate him mortally.
To say, then, that the gates of hades shall not pre-
vail against the church, is, in other words, to say, it
shall never die, it shall never, be extinct. All the er-
rors, superstitions, controversies, all the persecutions,
edicts, tortures, with which the church has been vi-
sited, have not proved mortal, and never shall. See
Campbell's Dissert. 6 part 2, 7-

It is well known that under or at the gates of east-
ern cities conversations are held, hospitality to the
passing traveller is dispensed, and the most important
transactions in commerce are carried on. Hence we
hear of Mordecai sitting in the king's gate ; and in
Lament, v. 14, that the elders have ceased from the
gate; and in Ruth iii. 11, " All the gate (that is,
house) of my people know that thou art virtuous.**
We also find Jacob, at an earlier period, saying,
" This is the gate of heaven ;" and Hezekiah, in Isa.
xxxviii. 1 0, " I shall go to the gates of the grave f
and our Lord, in Matt. xvi. 1 8, thus expressing him-
self, " The gates of hell shall not prevail against it."
He also uses this similitude when he says, "Enter ye
in at the strait gate" &c.

GEMS were originally used in divination, espe-
cially among the Egyptians, (Diod. Sic. lib. 1. p. 48.)
Something of this kind is supposed to be meant in
the investiture of Joseph by Pharaoh with a ring and
chain, (Gen. xli. 41, &c.) the gold chain, the badge of
the chief judge, being for the image of truth, as they
called it ; and the ring, being not given to real orders

GEMS; 207

or. decrees, but as a magical ring or talisman, to pre-
vent fascinations and delusions, and to divine by.

To keep the Israelites .from the use of magic, to
which the Egyptians were much addicted, God order-
ed a breastplate of judgment to be made for Aaron,
in which were to be set, in sockets of gold, twelve
precious stones, bearing the names engraven on them
of the twelve tribes of Israel. This was to be used
as an oracle on great emergencies, and the stones
were called Urim, fires or lights, and Thumim, per-
fections or truth : perfection and truth, in the Scrip-
ture style, being synonyms in sense, because what is
perfected is truly done, neither false, nor vain, nor yet
unexecuted, but accomplished.

The primary notion of aAjjfeae, truth, seems to be
that of revelation, or the discovery of a thing which
being hidden before, is no longer so : TO ft* Aij'flox, is
aXijfls?, that is, true, which is no more hidden.

See much on the Egyptian divinations in Jainbli-
chus de Mysteriis.

The oracles of God are frequently compared to
light or fire, as in Ps. cxix. 1 30, and other places.

Christ calls himself the light of the world ; he i
the true Urim and Thumim, the disposer of the ora-
cles of God. John viii. 12.

It appears from the manner in which they were an-
ciently used, that gems may be considered as the
symbols of judgment and government, -and as the
symbols of the Divine oracles, especially of such as
are prophetical ; both which they aptly represent, on
account of their light, brightness, and sparkling.

It was a saying of a Chinese king (Moral. Confuc.
lib. 2, p. 45), " I have four ministers of state, who

208 GEMS.

govern with great prudence the provinces I' have
committed to them : those are my precious stones;
they can enlighten a thousand furlongs."

All the oriental Oneirocritics affirm, that precious
stones and pearls are the symbols of government;
and the Indian Interpreter expressly asserts, " That
they are, for the most part, to be interpreted of the
Divine oracles, and of the wisdom and knowledge of
God."

As gems are substances of a permanent or durable
nature, the symbols from them are only used about
matters of a constant and long duration. Thus, Matt,
xiii. 45, 46, " the pearl of great price/'

Sometimes the manner of God's appearance is de-
scribed by images of this kind, as in Exod. xxiv. 10 :
" He stood upon a paved work of sapphire stones, and
as it were the body of heaven in its clearness;" de-
noting calmness, serenity, good will.
. The colours of gems, white, red, blue, green, are
explained by the Indian Interpreter, ch. 24.7.

There is a beautiful passage in Isa. liv. 11, &c.,
where the imagery is taken from gems :

** O thou afflicted, beaten with the storm, destitute of conso-
lation,

Behold I lay thy stones in cement of vermilion,
And thy foundations with sapphires :
And I will make of rubies thy battlements,
And thy gates of carbuncles,
And the whole circuit of thy walls shall be of precious stones."

These, as Lowth observes, are general images to ex-
press beauty, magnificence, purity, strength, and soli-
dity, agreeably to -the ideas of the eastern nations, and
to have never been intended to be strictly scrutinized,

GEMS. GIRDLE. 209

or minutely and particularly explained, as if they had
each of them some precise moral or spiritual meaning.

Tobit, in his prophecy of the final restoration of
Israel, describes the New Jerusalem in the same ori-
ental manner: "For Jerusalem shall be built up with
sapphires, and emeralds, and precious stones ; thy
walls, and towers, and battlements, with pure gold.
And the streets of Jerusalem shall be paved with be-
ryl, and carbuncle, and stones of Ophir." Ch. xiii.
16, 17-

Compare also Rev. xxi. 18-21.

There are several enumerations of gems in Scrip-
ture, viz. in Exod. xxviii. 17-20, Ezek. xxviii. 13,
Rev. xxi. 19, &c. ; but it is extremely difficult to de-
cide what their real names are. Rabbi Abraham Ben
David thinks those mentioned in Exodus were, the
cornelian, the topaz, the ceraunia, the carbuncle, the
sapphire, the diamond, the turquoise, the jacinth, the
onyx, the chrysolite, the emerald, and the jasper.

Those mentioned, by Ezekiel are, the ruby, the to-
paz, the diamond, the beryl, onyx, and jasper, the
sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle.

Or, according to the Septuagint, the sardius, topaz,
emerald, carbuncle, sapphire, and jasper, the ligure
and agate, amethyst, chrysolite, beryl, and onyx.

For those mentioned in the Revelations, see the
passage.

GIRDLE, the symbol of strength, activity, and
power.

Thus, Job xii. 18,

" He looseth the bond of kings,
And girdeth the girdle upon their loins."

By loosing the bond, or band, may be meant " de-

o

210 GIUDLE.

priving them of their strength ;" he taketh away their
mighty power, which was originally his gift.
So in verse 21,

" He poureth contempt upon princes,
And weakeneth the strength of the niiglity."

Literally, looseth the girdle.

Isa. xxiii. 10, what in our version is, " there is no
more strength," is literally, there is no more girdle s
though Lowth thinks it refers to the mound that kept
in the waters, acting as a girdle to restrain them.

Isa. v. 27 " Nor shall the girdle of their loins be
loosed ;" i. e. they shall be persons in full vigour and
strength.

On which passage Lowth remarks : " The eastern
people, wearing long aiid loose garments, were unfit
for .action, or business of auy kind, without girding
their clothes about them: when their business was.
finished, they took off their girdles. A girdle, there-
fore, denotes strength and activity ; and to unloose the
girdle, is to deprive of strength, to render unfit for
action., God promises to unloose the loins of kings
before Cyrus, ch. xlv. 1. The girdle is so essential a
part of a soldier's accoutrement, being the last that
he puts on to make himself ready for action, that to
be girded, fyvwo-dcu, with the Greeks, means to be
completely armed, and ready for battle. It is used
in the same manner by the Hebrews, " Let not him
that girdeth himself boast as he that unlooseth his
girdle/' that is, triumph not before the war is finished,
i Kings xx. 11.

Job xxx. 11, a very obscure passage : " Because he
hath relaxed my -cord," may mean, .'? because he hath
loosened my girdle," i.e. he hath weakened my strength ;

GIRDLE. 211

as it is added, "and afflicted me." But see Durell
on the passage, and Parkhurst on "lfV tier-
Isa, xl. 5,

"And righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins,
And faithfulness the cincture of his veins."

L e. A zeal for justice and truth shall make him ac-
tive and strong in executing the great work which he
shall undertake.
Isa. xxii. 21,

" I will strengthen him with thy girdle,
And thy government will I commit to his hands."

Where the latter expression appears to be synony-
mous to the former, as it often happens in the prophets.

Isa. xlv. 5, " I will gird thee, though thou hast not
known me ;" i. e. I will strengthen thee.

And so, in other places, to gird, is the same as to
strengthen, sad. to arm.

The Oneirocritics explain a girdle, of the principal
servant or keeper of the house, who is indeed the
strength thereof.

And, according to them, to be girded with a golden
girdle, signifies that the person who so dreams, shall
arrive, in the middle of his age, to the greatest power
and renown, and have a son to succeed him.

Girdles were anciently of very valuable materials ;
and hence Solomon's virtuous woman is said to make
rich girdles, and sell them to the merchant. Prov. xxxi,
24. But John the Baptist wore one of leather, as his
type Elijah had done, Matt. iii. 4; 2 Kings i. 8.
Paul's girdle is referred to by Agabus, in Acts xxi. 11.

Our Lord prohibits to his disciples the carrying
the money in their girdles, Matt. x. 9, Mark vi. 8,
which were made into a kind of purse, as is still usual

212 GIRDLE.

in eastern countries. . .The Roman soldiers used the
same custom. Hence, in Horace, " qui zonam perdi-
dit," means one who has lost his purse. And in Au-
lus Gellius, 1. 15, c. 12, C.Gracchus is introduced
saying, " Cum Roma profectus sum, Quirites, zonas
quas argenti plenas extuli, eas ex provincia inanes re-
tuli," . e. those girdles which I carried out full of
money when I went from Rome, I have at my return
from the province, brought home empty. See Park-
hurst and Wetstein.

The images of the Chaldeans portrayed upon the
wall with vermilion, Ezek. xxiii. 14, are represented
as being girded with girdles upon their loins.

Suidas interprets by '*%*/*<*, an office, dignity,
or authority. And Justinian, Imper. Nov. 12, writes,
" The punishment for contracting an incestuous mar-
riage, is confiscation of goods, also banithinent, and
the taking away of the girdle, if he possesses any,
that is, of all his dignity hoc est universes dignita-
tis." Hence the old epitaph :

" Arbitrio Regum Questurse Cingula Sumsit
Stemmate Praecipuus, Plus Probitate Cluens."

The girdle is sometimes used as a symbol of union :
" Preserving the unity of the Spirit in the bond of
peace," " charity or love, the bond of perfectness." In
both these passages, there is an allusion to the girdle,
which encircles the whole body. The loins being
girt, is, according to Pier. Hierogl. p. 1, p. 428, the
symbol of temperance. Hence the apostolic expres-
sions, " Gird up the loins of your minds, be sober, and
hope to the end," &C-

In Jerem. ch. 1 3, one of the symbols is, a linen
girdle left to rot, which is explained at v. 1 1. to mean

GIRDLE.... ..GLASS. 213

the people of Israel, whom God redeemed of old,
and .attached to himself by a special covenant, that as
a girdle serveth as an ornament to the wearer, so they
should be subservient to the honour of his name. But
it is added, " they would not hearken," or conform to
his intentions ; therefore, being polluted with the guilt
of their disobedience, they were in that state, and on
that very account, to be carried into captivity ; con-
formably to which, the prophet was directed not to
put the girdle in water, that is, not to wash it, but
to leave it in that filthiness which it had contracted
in the wearing.

Among the visions of Daniel, we find one in ch. x.
5, where he sees " a certain man clothed in linen,
whose loins were girded with fine gold of Uphaz.*'
The whole description very much resembles that in
Rev. ch. i. 13, " One like unto a son of man,".z.e. in
the human form* " clothed with a garment down to
the foot, and girt about the breasts with a golden
girdle"

Diodorus Siculus, 1. 17, writes thus of Alexander,
UT TOTS TlsfiirtKov, &c. " Then he put on the Persian
diadem, and clothed himself with a white tunic, with
the Persian girdle."

The seven angels mentioned in Rev. xv. 6, are de-
scribed as " having their breasts girded with golden
girdles," resembling the habit which the high priest
wore when he went into the most holy place, and con-
sulted the oracle.

GLASS, being a brittle substance, is a very suita-
ble emblem of fragility. The Oneirocritics generally
consider it to. denote a short-lived state. Horace
gives the epithet of glass to Fame, 1. 2, sat. 3, v. 222.

214 GLASS .GOATS.

Glass, also, on account of its transparency, is used
as a symbol expressive of Beauty, Hor. 1. 1, Od. 17,
1. 20.

And in the poets, waters, fountains, rivers, or seas,
are often compared to glass. Hor. 1. 3, Ode 13 ;
Virgil, Mn. 1. 7, v. 759.

Mention is made in Rev. iv. 6, and xv. 2, of a sea
of glass, like unto crystal, concerning the meaning of
which interpreters vary, but it is probably an allusion
to the brazen sea spoken of in 1 Kings vii. 23, and
elsewhere, containing water for the priests to wash
with, that they might not minister before God under
any pollution.

That the ancients understood the art of making
the artificial substance called glass, is put -beyond all
doubt by the writings of Aristotle, Lucretius, and
others. See Philo's embassy to Caius Caligula.
: Horace has, I. 3, Od. 13,

" O fons Blandusiae splendidior vitro."
" O thou Blandusian spring, more bright than glass."

And Ovid. Heroid. Ep. 15, line 158,

.** Vitreoque magis pellucidus amne."
" Clearer than the glassy stream."

What is called a glass in 1 Cor. xiii. 12, James i. 23,
is properly a mirror, and the ancient mirrors were
not of glass, like ours, but of brass (see Exod. xxxviii.
8), and were consequently liable to spots and rust.
. Rev. xxi. 18, " And the city was pure gold, like
unto clear glass," c. e. it shone with the brightness of
crystal. See Lowman's note in loc.

GOATS, from their offensiveness, mischievous,
and libidinous disposition, &c. are symbols of the

GOATS......GOG AND MAGOG. 215

wicked, who are, at the day of judgment, to be finally
separated from the good, Matt. xxv. 33..

According to Clarke, " Goats denote hypocrites ;
for goats were clean both for sacrifice and for food,"
Matt. xxiv. 51.

. But goats sometimes signify princes, as in Zech. x.
3, where Newcome translates " the chief ones." See
Isa. xiv. 9: and the Chaldee has a word equivalent
to principes.

GOG AND MAGOG. These names occur only in
Ezek. xxxviii. 2, &c., xxxix. 1 1, and Rev. xx. 8.

They seem to be taken allegorically for such
princes and powers as are, in the last days, to unite
to persecute the Church of God, and to oppose the
new order of things which is to follow the destruction
of the Beast and the False Prophet.

We learn from Gen, x. 2, that Magog was- the
second son of Japhet.

Ezekiel uses Magog for the country of which Gog
was prince.

Michaelis compares the word Gog with Kak or
Chak, the general name of kings among the ancient
Turks, Moguls, Tartars, Catalans, and Chinese, (Spic.
Geog. p. 34,) and thinks that 'Magog denotes those
vast tracts of country to the north of India and China,
which the Greeks called Scythia, and we, Tartary.
The Turks are generally allowed to be of Scythian
origin. Scythopolis and Hierapolis, which the Scy-
thians took when they overcame Syria, were ever
after by the Syrians called Magog. See Plin. 1. 5,
c. 23 ; MedeVDSsc. 50, p. 280. The Arabs call the
Chinese wall, " Sud Yagog et Magog," that is, Agger

216 GOG AND MAGOG.

Gog et Magog, or the Mound of Gog and Magog.
(See Hyde's Works by Sharpe, ii. 426.)

The Scythians ruled -over Media for twenty-two
years, before they were expelled from that country by
Cyaxares, early in the reign of Zedekiah. .After. their
expulsion, Nebuchadnezzar assisted in invading them.
It follows, that at this time they were a remarkable
people on the theatre of the world. (See Newcome
on Ezek.)

Gog is called the " Prince of Rhos, Meshech, and
Tubal."

Rkos is understood of a people by the Septuagint,
Symmachus, Theodotion, and Houbigant. Bochart
shows that the river Araxes was called Rhos ; whence
the Russi, who seem to have first settled in Taurica
Chersonesus, Geogr. 1. 3, c. 1 3.

Tubal and Meshech were sons of Japhet, Gen. x. 2.
The people called Tibareni and Moschi, are probably
here meant, who are generally mentioned together, and
were situated towards Mount Caucasus. See Bochart,
Michael is, and Newcome.

There is reason to believe, that what is now read
Agog in Numbers xxiv. 1, is a corruption, and should
be read Gog, as . in the Septuagint versions, the Sa-
maritan text, and the Greek text of Symmachus (see
Poli. Syn. in loc.) ; and it is likely that in the days of
Moses, this was the common name of the princes of
some .powerful people ; so powerful, that to say the
king of Israel, meaning David, or rather the Messiah,
should be higher than Gog, or exalted over Gog, was
to say every thing expressive of power and of exten-
sive dominion. Hence the chief of the host, who, in

GOG AND MAGOG* 217

the latter days, is to come from the same quarter
against the land of Israel, is thus denominated. The
very name also might become proverbial.

In the Koran, ch. xviii., Gog and Magog are said
to waste the land, and a wall is mentioned which Gog
and Magog could not scale, neither could they dig
through it. They are also mentioned in ch. xxi., but
nothing is said to convey an* idea what persons or
people were understood by these names. It is not
improbable that Mahomet borrowed these, and many
other allusions, from the Sacred writings, in order to
give his pretended revelations a greater resemblance
to genuine Scripture.

It is probable, according to the notion of the Ara-
bians, that Gog and Magog formerly inhabited the
mountains of the Hyperboreans, and that they were
known to the ancients by this name. This nation is
unquestionably famous in antiquity, and there is reason
for imagining, that they were some of the Scythians,
and confounded among the Great and Little Tartars,
and perhaps among the Muscovites and other north-
ern people. See Well's Geogr. v. i. p. 160; Rees'
Cyclop, and Calmet's Diet., article Gog.

The Gog and Magog of Revelations cannot be
literally understood of the nations so called in the
Old Testament ; for there Gog the prince, with the
people of Magog, came out of the north parts, where
the posterity of Magog was seated ; but the Gog and
Magog of the Apocalypse, are said to be nations
which are in the four quarters of the earth. As,
therefore, the Apocalyptic Babylon is not Babylon in
Chaldea, but a counter type thereof, so the Apoca-

218 GOG AND MAGOG.

lyptic Gog and Magog are not the Gog and Magog
of the North, but a counter type of them.

Mede supposes them to be the Turks, in which,
perhaps, he includes in general the Mahometan powers;
and referring to the prophets alluded to in Ezek.
xxxviii. 17 he thinks the following passages are 1
meant, viz. Isaiah xxvii. 1, with the two last verses
of the 26th chapter; Jer. xxx. 23, 24; Joel iii. 1,
&c. ; Micah v. 5, 6, 9> 15 ; in all which places men-
tion is made of some terrible enemy who should come
against Israel, at the time of their return, whom the
Lord should destroy with a hideous and dreadful
slaughter. Newcome is of opinion, that the predic-
tions of the prophets on this subject, referred to. by
Ezekiel, were never committed to writing, or are now
lost.

Mede also thinks, that Gog is the power meant by
Micah under the name of the Assyrian, not as though
this were his original nation, but . as the province
from whence he should invade the land of Israel.

Lowman considers these nations of Gog and Magog
to be a very proper figurative description of the ene-
mies of true religion, and its faithful professors.

Pyle supposes them to mean remote heathen na-
tions, prompted by envy and desire of plunder, who
shall be permitted to invade the Christian territories
in vast bodies and armies.

Shuckford thinks that the country round Aleppo is
the land of Magog, once called Hierapolis, but more
anciently Magog, as Pliny asserts, and Maimonides
in Haltcoththerumoth, c. 1, 9, and that the lands of
Meshech and Tubal were adjacent to it. See Bp.

GOG AND MAGOG GOLD. 219

Newton on the Prophecies, v. ii. p. 347, and Daubuz,
p. 574.

GOLD is the symbol of the great value, the dura-
tion, the incorruptibility, and the strength of the sub-
ject to which it is applied.

Thus, Isa. xiii. 12,

" I will make a man more precious tliau fine gx>ld,
Yea, a man than the rich ore of Ophir."

Lam. iv. 2,

" The precious sons of Sion, of worth equal to the purest gold,
How are they esteemed as earthen pitchers, the manufacture
of the potter!"

So in 2 Tim. ii. 20, Vessels of gold, as being pre-
cious, are opposed to vessels of wood and earth.
Riches are the strength of a man. Prov. xviii. 11,

" The rich man's wealth is his strong city,
And as an high wall about his habitation/''

. For power and riches go together, and are akin in the
way of the world. And hence gold symbolically sig-
nifies power, as well as riches.

Agreeably to this, the Phoenicians represented their
gods with purses of gold, as the symbol of their
power, (Suidas, v. 'Egpiy.) Thus, also, potens is rich,
Quint. Inst. 1. 6, c. 3, and impotentia is poverty.
Terence, Ad. act 4, sc. 3.

Gold denotes spiritually the redeeming merits of
Christ, Rev. Hi. 18, " I counsel thee to buy of me
gold tried in the fire, that thou mayest be rich."
Though others interpret it of being rich in good works
before God.

In 1 Cor. iii. 12, it seems to denote sincere be-
lievers, built into the Christian church, who will stantf
the fiery trial.

220 GOLD.

;

Job xxx vi. 19, .

" Will he esteem thy riches ? ,

' Not gold,.nor. all the forces of strength."

Or rather, as Durell renders it,

" Not gold, nor all the powers of wealth."

Dan. ii. 38, " Thou art this head of gold."

The Babylonian empire is so called, on account of
its great riches; and Babylon was called by Isaiah,
as in our version, " the golden city," (ch. xiv. 4,) but
more properly, " the exaetress of gold."

Eccl. xii. 6, " Or the golden bowl be broken."

Some explain this of the human head or skull, which
resembles a bowl in form.

Rev. iv. 4, " The elders," and ix. 7j " The locusts,
had on their heads crowns of gold."

In the costume of the East, a linen turband, with a
gold ornament, was reckoned a crown of gold, and is
so called in the language of Scripture, Lev. viii. 9.
In the case of the Mahometan Arabs, who are, in all
probability, here represented by locusts, they were
accustomed to wear ornaments on their heads like
crowns or mitres.

And the Komish or Antichristian Babylon is ac-
cordingly described under . the figure of a female,
decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, hav-
ing a golden cup in her hand, Rev. xvii. 4 ; and in
Rev. xviii. 16, the city, or mystical Babylon, is repre-
sented by the same terms

Rev. xiv. 14, " Having on his head a golden

crown."

The ensign of royalty and sovereign power is here
applied to Jesus Christ.

G11A?ES. 221

GRAPES. Independently of their literal mean-
ing, it is plain, from more than one passage of Scrip-
ture, that they are used in a figurative sense. As,
for instance, in Rev. xiv. 18, " Gather the clusters of
the vine of the earth ; 'for her grapes are fully ripe j"
i. e. the appointed time for the execution of Divine
vengeance is come, and the iniquities of the inhabi-
tants of the earth have made them fully ripe for de-
struction.

In Micah vii. 1, it is also used figuratively, as well
expressed by Newcome in his note on the place:
" As the early fig of excellent flavour cannot be found
in the advanced season of summer, or the choice clus-
ter of grapes after vintage ; so neither can the good
and upright man be discovered by diligent searching
in Israel. This comparison is beautifully implied."

So in Jerem. vi. 9,

" They shall thoroughly glean as a vine the relics of Israel.
Turn again thine hand, like a grape gatherer, unto the
baskets."

An address to the Chaldeans, exhorting them to re-
turn and pick up those few inhabitants that were left
before, like the grape gleaning?, and to carry them
also into captivity. The Chaldeans did so, as may
be seen, ch. lii. 28, 29, 30.

And in Jer. xlix. 9, the meaning is, that when the
enemy came to spoil, they should meet with no inter-
ruption, but should glean quite clean, and leave no-
thing behind through haste. See Blayney.

Ezek. xviii. 2, " The fathers have eaten sour grapes,
and the children's teeth are set on edge." A pro-
verbial expression, explained by the Chaldee, " The
fathers have sinned, and the sons are smitten." In

222 GRAPES .GRASS.

the second commandment, i is expressly declared,
that the children should be punished in this life for
the idolatry of the fathers. Idolatry was high trea-
son while the Theocracy subsisted, and was to be re-
strained by the severest sanctions, under a dispensa-
tion appointed for these, among ether wise purposes,
to preserve the Israelites from the general taint of
idolatry, and to maintain and propagate the know-
ledge of the one God. The general principle of the
law cannot be better explained than in the words of
Cicero, ep. ad. Brutum 12, "Hoc praeclare legibus
comparatum est, ut caritas liberorum amiciores pa-
rentes reipublicae redderet."

In the destruction by the Babylonians, the good
were to escape, ch. ix. 4, 6, but they were only to de-
liver themselves, ch. xiv. 14, 20, 21. Whenever the
children had suffered temporal evils for the idolatry
of their fathers, they had justly incurred a punish-
ment solemnly denounced. With respect to the im-
pending calamity from Nebuchadnezzar, God's pur-
pose was to observe another rule of conduct. (New-
come.)

GRASS. As trees signify princes, nobles, and rich
men, so, by the rule of analogy, grass must signify the
common people.

And in Scripture, men are compared to grass, as in
1 Peter i. 24 ; Isa. xl. 6, 7-

In 1 Cor.iii. 12, hay or grass is applied figura-
tively to persons.

Rev. viii. 7 " And all green grass was burnt up,"
descriptive of the effects of those calamities which
fell upon the Roman empire, by which the lower

GRASS.... ..HAIL. 223

orders (the grass) suffered, as well as the higher
orders, (the trees.)

Rev. ix. 4, " That they should not hurt the grass
of the earth."

The natural locusts hurt every green thing, and
prey upon it as their food ; but these figurative locusts
were under restrictions. It is generally explained of
the rise of the Mahometan power ; and it is very sin-
gular, that Abubeker gave orders " not to destroy
palm trees, nor burn any fields of corn, and to cut
down no fruit trees ;" which seems to identify the
Saracens with these mystic locusts.

See Oakley's History of the Saracens.

HAIL is the symbol of the Divine vengeance upon
kingdoms and nations, the enemies of God and of his
people. And as a hail-storm is generally accompanied
by lightning, and seems to be produced by a certain
electrical state of the atmosphere, so we find in Scrip-
ture hail and foe, i. e. lightning, mentioned together.
Thus in Exod. ix. 23, " And the Lord sent thunder
and hail, and the fo-e ran along the ground, and the
Lord rained hail upon the land of Egypt."

Job. xxxviii. 22, 23,

" Hast thou entered into the treasures of the snow,
Or hast thou seen the treasures of the hail?
Which I have reserved against the day of trouble,
Against the day of battle and war ?"

Psalm cv. 32, referring to God's plagues on Egypt,

" He gave them hail for ram,
And flaming^re in their land."

Ps. Ixxviii. 48, treating of the same subject, has,

" He gave up their cattle also to the hail,
And their flocks to hot thunderbolts.'"

224 HAIL.

Ps. cxlviii, 8, They are linked together thus, .'.

" Fire and hail, and snow, and vapour,
Stormy wind, fulfilling his word." .

And the like in Ps. xviii. 13,

* The, Lord also thundered in the heavens,
And the Most High gave forth his voice,
Hailstones and coals of fire."

In Isaiah xxviii. 2, a passage relating to the Israel-
ites, and which denounces their approaching destruc-
tion by Shalmanezer, the same images are employ ^
ed. Hail is mentioned as a divine judgment by
the prophet Haggai, ch. ii. 17- The destruction of
the Assyrian army is thus pointed out in Isaiah xxx.
30,

" And Jehovah shall cause his glorious voice to be heard,
And the lighting down of his arm to he seen,
With wrath indignant, and a flame of consuming./?*-*,
With a violent storm, and rushing showers, and AaiVstones."

Ezekielxiii.il, represents the wall daubed with
untempered mortar, as being destroyed by great hail-
stones. And in his prophecy against Gog, he thus
expresses himself, ch. xxxviii. 22,

" And I will plead against him with pestilence and with blood,
And with an overflowing shower and great hailstones,

Fire and brimstone will I rain upon him."

;

A prediction, which probably remains to be accom-
plished on the future enemies of the Jews, Gog and
Magog, Rev. xx. 9, when his people are reinstated in
God's favour, of which enemies it is there said, " And
fire came down from God out of heaven, and devour-
ed them." V

The hail and fire, mingled with blood, mentioned
in Rev. viii. 7, are supposed to denote the commo-
tions that took place in the Roman empire during the

HAIL. 225

reigns of Jovian, Valentinian, Valens and Gratian,
during which the empire suffered great calamities,
and many bloody battles took place from the year 363
to 379. Claudian has well expressed the misery of
those times, to his son Honorius, as quoted by Low-
man,

" Omnibus affiictis, et vel labentibus ictu,
' Vel prope casuris, unus tot funera contra, .

Eestitit, extinxitque faces, agrisque Colonos,
Reddidit, et Leti rapuit de faucibus urbes.
Nulla relicta foret, Roman! nominis umbra,
Ni Pater ille tuus, jamjam ruitura subisset
Pondera," &c.

It is a just observation of Sir Isaac Newton, " That,
in the prophetic language, tempests, winds, or the
motions of clouds, are put for wars ; thunder, or the
voice of a cloud, for the voice of a multitude ; and
storms of thunder, lightning, hail, and overflowing
rain, for a tempest of war, descending from the hea-
vens and clouds politic."

In reference to the period, supposed to be predict-
ed in Rev. viii. 7, Philostorgius, after mentioning
numerous calamities which men were exposed to, adds,
" Also there were inundations of rain waters, and in
some places flashes of flames, and sometimes whirl-
winds of fire, which produced various and intolerable
torments. Yea, and hail bigger than a man's fist, or
greater than a man could hold in his hand, did fall in
many places, weighing as far as eight pounds."

The great hail in Rev. xi. 19, denotes great and
heavy judgments on the enemies of true religion.
And the . grievous storm in ch. xvi. 21, represents
something similar, probably still future, and far more
severe.

226 HAIL.

The Hebrew term for hailstone, algebisk,from:ffe
bisk, a gem jor crystal, .with.the Arabic article prefix-
ed, 2. e. hailstones of gems, or hailstones'- asj large as
gems, is thought by Parkhurst to refer to some idola-
trous notion the Jews;entertained about ihail* ;". It is
certain," he says, " that the latter heathen attributed
the sending of kail to .their Jupiter, and looked upon
any remarkable showers ; of it as proofs of bis anger."
So Horace, Ode 2; lib. 1,

" Jam satis terris nivis, atque diise

Grandinis misit Pater," &c.
" Too long, alas, with storms of hail and snow,

Jove has chastised the world below."

MAYNWAMNG.

Comp. Virgil, Mn. 4,lin. 120, 161 ; ^n; 9, lin. 669,
and Livy, 1. 2. cap. 62, and lib. 26, cap. 11. Spence,
in his Polymetis, gives us a medal, on which Jupiter
Pluvius, or the Rainy, is represented seated on the
clouds, holding up his right hand, and pouring a
stream of hail and rain from it upon the earth, whilst
his Fulmen is held down in his left.

According to. Achmet and the Interpreters of
Dreams, hail, snow, and the like, portend anxieties
and torments, or some sudden attack of an enemy.
And when the hail injures or destroys heaps of corn
or barley, there hostile inroads and slaughter may be
expected.

' Pindar and Demosthenes apply it to a like purpose,
the latter of whom compares the progress of King
Philip to a storm of hail.

Isaiah xxxii. 1 9, is thus rendered by Lowth,

; : " But the hail shall fell, and the forest be brought down,
And the city shall be laid level with the plain." '

The city, says the Bishop, is probably Nineveh or

HAIL......HAIR. 227

Babylon ; but this verse is very obscure. Ephraim
Syrus supposes -the : forest to be the kingdom of the
Assyrians* and the city, their extensive camps. And
so conjectured Archbishop Seeker, referring to Zech.
xi.2. :.; ., : ; . .- .. , . .:

Glassius thinks that the world in general is here
described, the prophet by forest and city, meaning' the
uncultivated and the habitable parts, and that while it
should tremble and shake under calamities, the .godly
should be preserved from them all.

HAIR. White hair,, or the hoary head, is the
symbol of the respect due. to age. Levit. xix. 22,

" Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head,
And honour the face of the old man."

And Solomon says, Prov. xvi. 31,

'' The hoary, head is a crown of glory,
If it be found in the way of righteousness."

Hence we find in Dan. vii. 9, God takes upon him
the title of " Ancient of Days."

The hoary head is the symbol of authority and ho-
nour. All the interpreters agree in this.

The shaving of the head, on the contrary, signifies
affliction, poverty and disgrace. Thus in Isa. vii. 20,
" The shaving the head, the hair of the feet, and the
beard, by a hired razor," the king of Assyria, denotes
the troubles, slaughter, and destruction to be brought
upon; the Jews by the Assyrian armies. The hairs
of the head, are those of the highest order in the state ;
those of the feet, or the lower parts, are the common
people; the beard is the king, the high priest, the
very supreme in dignity and majesty. The eastern
people have always held the beard in the highest

228 HAIR* :

veneration, and have been extremely jealous of its
honour. To pluck a man's beard, is an instance of
the greatest indignity that can be offered. See
Lowth in loc. - ;

Hence also in Jer xlvii. 5. Baldness is destruc-
tion.

Isa. xv. 2, " On every head there is baldness, and
every beard is shorn."

Herodotus, ii. 36, speaks of it as a general practice
among all men, except the Egyptians, to cut off their
hair as a token of mourning. " Cut off thy hair and
cast it away," says Jerem. vii. 29, *' and take up a
lamentation."

And Homer in his Odyssey, 4, 197, as translated
by Pope, '

"The rites of woe
Are all, alas, the living can bestow ;
O'er the congenial dust enjoined to shear
The graceful curl, and drop the tender tear."

A Nazarite was one who, by a special vow, had
separated himself, or set himself apart for a time
from all worldly connexions, to attend upon the ser-
vice of God only, Num. vi. 2. Under these cir-
cumstances he was to let the hair of his head grow ;
verse 5, and when the days of his vow were fulfilled,
he was then to shave his head at the door of the ta-
bernacle of the congregation ; verse 18, in a solemn
and public manner, to notify that he was no longer in
his former state of separation.

Forster, in his Observations, p. 560, speaks of the
hair cut off and thrown upon the bier, at Otaheite j
and at the Friendly Islands, it is expressly said, that
f cutting off the hair is one of their mourning cere-

HAIR. 229

tiaonies; Cook's Voyage, v. i. p. 112. This was for-
bidden by the Mosaic law, as well as cutting the flesh,
at the same time, and on the same principles. The
hair is the natural ornament of the head ; and the
loss of it a considerable defect in the human figure.
It was therefore not to be voluntarily assumed by
those whose profession obliged them to " worship
Jehovah in the beauty of holiness." At what time
the observance of the law in these particulars began
to be relaxed, does not appear ; but there are no traces
of such customs among God's chosen people, earlier
than those which are alluded to in the prophetical
books, properly so called. See Blayney.

Hairs, as the hair, of women, Rev. ix. 8.

This is part of the description of the apocalyptic
locusts ; it may either denote the greatness, length,
and fineness of the hair, the symbol of honour and
authority; or else, that the hair is tressed up and
plaited after the manner of women, as was the way of
the Saracens. And therefore those of the sect of Ali,
to distinguish themselves, had not only a turban
made after a particular fashion, but they also twisted
their hair after a manner quite different from the rest
of the Mussulmans. (Herbelot, title Ali.)

Dressing the hair in this manner, is the symbol of
luxury and effeminacy ; and therefore it is forbidden
to Christian women, as being the practice of the
heathens, and the dress of harlots, in 1 Peter iii. 3 ;
1 Timii. 9.

And not only in women, but more particularly in
men, is the said practice condemned in Holy Writ, as
in 1 Cor. xi. 14, where the word Kepj signifies hair

230 HAIR.... ..HAND.

studiously dressed, as women are wont to do- with

theirs.' " '- ; - -.,"; ::-::.l ; : : '. " ' : ':'

Persius, Sat. 4, 1; 1, calls Socrates barbatusmagister.
Philosophers were so styled by way of honour and
distinction, for cutting off the beard' was a punishment
and '. a mark of disgrace, as we learn from the 13th
book of Athenaeus. ;

. HAND. Hands are the symbols of human action ;
pure hands are pure actions ; unjust hands are deeds
of injustice ; hands full of blood, actions stained with
cruelty, and the like. Ps. xc. 17; Job ix. 30 ; 1 Tim.
ii. 8; Isaiah i. 15.

And so Herodian describing a homicide, calls him,
" a man of impure hands," lib. 1.

"And Seneca, Here. Jur. act 5, says, " Nullum mare,
nulla flumina dextram abluere posse scelere sanguine-
que contamihatam."

Euripides in Orest. says, " uyns y*g apt %,&**" for
I am of pure hands.

Washing of the hands, was the symbol of inno-
cence. Ps. xxvi. 6,

" I will wash my hand in innocence,
And I will encompass thine altar, Jehovah."

Ps. Ixxiii. 13,

" I have purified my heart in vain,
And washed my hands in innocence."

Of this Pilate furnishes an example, Matt, xxvii. 24,
where, taking water, he washes his hands, and says,
" I am innocent of the blood of this just man $ see
yeioit."

Washing the hands was used as a symbol of initia-
tion. Hence Ovid says, Fasti lib. 4,

" Tu cpnversus ad aras,
Die quater et vivo perlue rore manus."

HAND, 231

Arid Prudentius,

" De tore fontano abluam
MaQus .et' os et lumina,
Pateatque fac sacraiium."

Litgpvius observes, that the ruins of a temple are
found in Crete, on the door of which is this inscrip-
tion,

** Cleanse your feet, wash your hands, and then enter."

To such rites, perhaps, the Saviour alludes, John iii.
v, " Verily, verily I say unto you, unless a man be
bora of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into
the kingdom of God." And Paul, in Heb. x. 23,
" Let us draw near, &c. having our body cleansed
with pure water." And James iv. 8, " Draw nigh to
God, and he will draw nigh to you: cleanse your
hands, ye sinners, and purify your hearts, ye double-
minded."

Washing of hands was a symbol of expiation, as
might be shown by numerous references. And of
sanctification, as appears from several passages, 1 Cor.
vi. 11 ; fea. i. 16 : Ps. xxiv. 3, 4. ,For all the ablu-
tions of the Old Testament prefigured nothing else
than the sanctification of the Church of God, and
hence, Eph. v. 26, it is said, " Christ gave himself
for it, that he might sanctify and cleanse it with the
washing of 'water by the word," &c. And Paul, in
1 Tim. ii. 8, says, "I will therefore that men pray
every where, lifting up holy hands," &c. See Job xi.
13, 14.

It was the custom of the Jews to wash their hands
before and after meat. See Mark vii, 3 ; Matt. vi. 2 ;
Luke xi. 38. A Jewish author writes thus : " He
who wishes to eat food, for the sake of which prayer

232 HAND;

is to be said, let him pour water oh his hands, al-
though he is conscious of no impurity in them, and
at the same time let him recite the customary bene-
diction on pouring the water on his hands."
Plautus mentions the custom, in Pers. Act 1. sc. 5,

" Hoc age, accumbe,
Date aquam manibus, apparate mensam."

The object of these ceremonies was to recall to the
mind, that all gifts for the sustenance of the body
proceed from God, and are to be received with a pure
and holy mind, as Paul teaches, 1 Cor. x. 31, " Whe-
ther ye eat or drink, or whatever ye do, do all to the
glory of God." And in 2 Cor. vii. 1, " Let ; us cleanse
ourselves from all Jilthiness of the flesh and spirit,
perfecting holiness in the fear of God," And what
water effects outwardly, the blood of Christ is said to
effect inwardly, " purging the conscience from dead
works;" Heb. ix. 13, 14. And as unclean persons are
not admitted into the company of their superiors, so
it is said, " Without holiness no man shall see the
Lord;" Heb. xii. 14. " He that hath this hope in
him, purifieth himself, even as God is pure ;" 1 John in.
2,3.

Hand, in general, is the symbol of power and
strength ; and the right hand more particularly so.

To hold by the right hand, is the symbol of pro-
tection and favour ; Ps. xviii. 35.

The expression in Mark xvi. 19, " He sat at the
right hand of God," is equivalent to the expression in
Mark xiv. 63, "He sat at the right hand of Power,"
meaning that' divine -power and authority are com-
municated to Christ. .'..:.:

HAND. 233

So the right hand of fellowship, Gal. ii. 9, signified
a communication of the same power and authority.

To give the hand, as to a master, is the token of
submission and future obedience. Thus in 2 Chron.
xxx. 8, the words in the original, ." Give the hand
unto the Lord," signify, yield yourselves unto the
Lord. The like phrase is used in Ps. Ixviii. 31 ;
Lam. v. 6.

And thus in Horace, Epod. 17, to give hands, is to
submit, or to yield one's self a slave, as it is explain-
ed by the commentator.

To lift up the right hand to heaven, was the sign
used in swearing. Gen. xiv. 22 ; Exod. vi. 8 ; Num.
xi v. 30 ; Deut. xxxii. 40 ; Ezek. xx. 5, 6 ; Dan. xii. 7-

Marks in the hands or wrists, were the tokens of
servitude ; the heathens being wont to imprint marks
upon the hands of servants, and on such as devoted
themselves to some false deity. Thus in Zech. xiii. 6,
one shall say to him,

" What are these marks (or punctures) in thine hands ?
And he shall say,

Those with which I have been stricken in the house of my
friends."

The man, when challenged for the scars visible on his
hands, would deny them to have proceeded from an
idolatrous cause, and pretend that they were the
effects of the wounds he had given himself for the loss
of his friends.

The right hand stretched out, is the symbol of im-
mediate exertion of power. Exod. xv. 12.

The right hand, or the hands laid upon a person,
are the symbol of a conveyance or transmission of
blessings, strength, and power, or authority. Gen. xlviii.

234 HAND.

14-2Q; Dani, x. 10;^ Num. xxvii. 18. .God was
wont to :give- this --honour to his prophets, or to be-
stow his 'gifts upon Others at' their prayers, of which
imposition of hands was a symbol. So Moses laid his
hands on Joshua, Num. xxvii. 18. Naaman joins
calling on God's name with laying on of hands.
2 Kings v. 11. Calvin says, " Let :us remember that
the laying on of hands was the instrument of God,
at the time when he gave the visible graces of his
Spirit to his people. But since the church has been
deprived of such riches, to-wit, the visible graces of
his Spirit, laying on of hands would be but an unpro-
fitable image. ...

The hand of God upon a prophet, signifies the im-
mediate' operation of his Holy Spirit on the soul or
body of the prophet, as in 1 Kings xviii. 46 ; 2 Kings,
iii. 15 ; Ezek. i. 3 ; Hi. 22 ; viii. 1. And as the hand,
so also tHejfinger of God, denotes this power or spirit.
See Luke xi. 20, and compare Matt. xii. 28. Thus
our Saviour cast out devils or demons by his bare
command ; whereas the Jews cast them out only by
the invocation of the name of God. And so in Exod.
viii. 19j the finger of God, is a work which none but
God could perform.

And thus the expression in Exod. xxxi. 18, of the
two tables being written with the finger of God, seems
to denote that letters were then first given ; that the
giving of them was a work of God's design and con-
trivance, so proper to him as not to be done by any
other. The invention of expressing articulate sounds
by characters^ seems to exceed' the reach of human
wit ; language and writing must both' have been of
divine suggestion. Eupolemus says, that Moses was

235

the first wise man, who taught the art of grammar or
writing to the Jews, that the Phoenicians received it
from them, and the Greeks from the Phoenicians.

HARP. Harps or guitars are constantly in the
Holy Scriptures instruments of joy. They are men?
tioned in very ancient times as musical instruments,
used both by Jews and Gentiles; and their employ-
ment in the temple worship frequently occurs. Moses
has named their original inventor in Gen. iv. 2l, viz.
Jubal; and ia Gen. xxxi. 2*7, Laban says to Jacob,
" Why did you not tell me, that I might have sent
you away with mirth and songs, with tabret and with
harp " And in that very ancient writing, the Book
of Job, ch. xxi. H that Patriarch, speaking of the
prosperity of the wicked, says, " They take the tim-
brel and harp, and rejoice at the sound of the organ."
And when complaining of his own condition, ch. xxx.
31, he says, " My harp also is turned into mourning,
and my organ to the voice of them that weep. 5 * Isaiah
speaks of the harp under the same character, as an
instrument of jby, ch. xxiv. 8,

*' The joyful sound of the tabor ceaseth,
The noise of exultation is no more, -'
The joyful sound of the harp ceaseth."

Divine subjects used to be brought forward with
the accompaniments of the harp. Thus, Ps. xlix. 5,

" I will incline mine ear to a parable,
I will open my dark saying upon the harp."

And that the high praises of God were so celebrat-
ed, there are numerous testimonies, Ps. xxxiii. 2,

" Praise Jehovah with the harp."
Ps. Ixiii. 4,

: v " X)h the harp will I praise thee, O God, my God."

236 . ; HARP.

Ps. Ivii. 8, .''- . :

" Awake up, my glory ; awake, psaltery and- harp ; '
. I myself will awake early."

See also Ps. Ixxi. 22, 23; xcii. 4, 5, 6 ;" xcviii. 5 ;
clxvii. 7; cl. 3. ,

That harps are used to celebrate the praises of
heroes, is well known.

Thus Homer, Hiad 9th,

" Amused at ease, the godlike man they found,
Pleased with the solemn harp's harmonious sound,
(The well wrought harp from conquer'd Thebae came,
Of polish'd silver was its costly frame),
With this he soothes his angry soul, and sings
The immortal deeds of heroes and of kings." POPE.

And Ammianus Marcellinus says, " Bardi quidem
fortia virorum illustrium facta heroicis composita ver-
sibus cum dulcibus lyrae modulis cantitarunt." And
hence the harp is put by Propertius for singing and
celebrations, 1. 2, el. 10,

" Nunc volo subducto gravior procedere vultu,
Nunc aliam citharam me mea Musa docet."

Harps in Solomon's day, were made of the ahnug
tree, as our translators have it, 1 Kings x. 11, 12,
which appears to have been ebony, brought from
India, as Ewaldus observes ; but Josephus calls it the
pitch or .torch tree. They were often gilded, and
hence called golden harps, Rev. v. 8. So Virgil,
Mn. 1,

" cithara crinitus Jopas

Personat aurata."

Theocritus in Idyll, speaks of harps of boxtree,

and Aristophanes of ivory harps. Lucian describes

the form of the ancient harp, in his dialogues of the

BTAUP. 237

godsr a Mercury found a tortoise^shell somewhere,
which he formed into an instrument, adapting pins to
it, and laying bars, then fixing reeds, and covering it
over, and applying to it seven strings, he made most
exquisite harmony." %sxmy g, . r. A. Harps
of eight strings are mentioned, 1 Chron. xv. 21, call-
ed in our version, "harps on the Sheminith." But
amongst the Greeks it had for most part seven strings.
Thus Euripides in Jon. v. 881, " O thou who sweetly
playest on the seven-stringed harp." Josephus, Antiq.
1. 7, c. 12, describes a harp of ten strings. The dis-
tinct-sounds uttered by these strings or chords, are
alluded to by Paul, in 1 Cor. xiv. 7- Its soothing effect
was exemplified in calming down the furious spirit of
Saul, 1 Sam. xvi. 17, 24 ; xviii. 9 ; xix. 9. The spirit
of prophecy appears to have been excited by instru-
mental music of this kind ; 2 Kings iii. 15. Harpers
held the instrument in the hand, or placed it on a
pillar, or sat down by a river side ; whence Ovid
Fasti, 1.2. v. 115,

" Ule sedens citharamque tenet, pretiumque vehendi
Cantat, et sequoreas carmine mulcet aquas."

Sometimes they suspended them from trees, to which
there is an allusion in Ps. cxxxvii. 1, 2,

" By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept,
When we remembered Zion. '

On the willows in the midst of it we hanged our harps."

The harp was used in processions and public
triumphs, in worship, and the offices of religion, and
was sometimes accompanied with dancing. See Psalm
cxlix. 3. Euripides also joins the harp and the dance
together, Iphig. v. 1037 and Homer, Odyss. 1. 8, and
Theognis, &c."

238 HARP.

They : were also used after successful battles \ see
2 Chron. xxi 28 ; . 1 Mace. xiii. 51. Isaiah alludes to
this custom inch. xxx. 32, , :

*' Wherever the rod of correction shall pass,
: Which Jehovah shall lay: heavily upon him,
It shall be accompanied with tabrets and harps,
And with fierce battles shall he fight against them."

i. e. as Lowtb. observes, " With every demonstration
of joy and thanksgiving, for the destruction of the
enemy in so wonderful a manner; with hymns of
praise, accompanied with musical instruments." See
verse 29. So, in the .victory of the Lamb, Rev. xiv..
1, 2, " I heard the voice of harpers harping with their
harps ;'V-the church, in heaven being represented as
composing a grand chorus, in celebration . of the- tri-
umphs ; of the Redeemer. ..

The heathen had'the same customs, as appears from
many authors, and Bulenger de Triumphis, cap. 1 30,
" Praeibant triumphanti Imperatori , lictpres, tunicis
puniceis amicti, chorus citharistarum et Satyrorum
Hetruscae pompae ritu cinctorum, ornamentorumque
coronis aureis.'* < '.:.:

At. solemn feasts, and especially of the nuptial
kind, harps were employed. To this the prophet
Isaiah alludes, ch. v. 1 2, where he says, ;

" Wo to them that rise early in the morning, to follow strong

drink; '..''

Who sit late in the evening, that wine may inflame them ;
And the lyre and the harp, the tabor and the pipe,
And wine are their entertainments:
But the work of Jehovah they regard not,
'And the operation of his hands they do not perceive."

Homer mentions the custom, in Diad .24, and Odys-
sey, lib. 23. .,':;_

HAHP. 239

That harps were used in worship, has been already
adverted to ; and that the heathen employed them on
such occasions, appears from Dan. Hi. 5, 7, 15. Vir-
gil refers to the custom in Mn.l. 6.:

" Nee non Threicius longa cum vesta sacerdos," &c.
" The Thracian bard, surrounded by the rest,
There stands conspicuous in his flowing vest,
His flying fingers and harmonious quill
Strike seven distinguished notes, and seven at once they
fill." DBYDBN.

Also Theognis, in Sentent. v. 758, tpogfuyy' -<p6y-
yo& K. v. A. " Again the harp or pipe sounds '\ forth a
sacred melody, while we appease the gods with liba-
tions/' .

Bochart observes, v. 1, p. 729, it is probable that
the Greeks used the harp chiefly on mournful occa-
sions, whereas among the Hebrews, playing on the
harp was a sign of joy. But, on examining the Greek
writers, this remark does not appear to be well found-
ed, for the harp is found to have been employed simi-
larly among both nations;. and, Bochart. rests ;his ob-
servations chiefly on the ,term Vyyg, as referring to
lamentation.

Ammonius makes a distinction between x<0g<?u?
and xi0ag$o ? . The former is one who only plays,
the latter one who both sings and plays. It is the
latter term which is- used in Rev. xiv. 2, xviii. 22.

" Harps of God," Rev. xv. 2, are either an Hebra-
ism to shew their excellence, as the addition of God
often signifies, (the most excellent things in their kind
being in the Scriptures said to be of God), as a prince
of God, Gen. xxiii. 6, in the original ; the mountains
of God, Ps. xxxvi. 6, in the original ; cedars of God,
Ps. Ixxx. 11, orig. ; and the like.

240 HARP.:.. ..HARVEST.

Or else they mean, harps given as from God.

Or, harps of God may be harps used in the service
of God, in opposition to harps common and profane.
1 Chron. xvi. 42$ 2 Chron. vii, 6.

HARVEST, is put for a time of destruction, Ho-
sea vi. 11, according to Newcome; but according to
Horsley for a time of mercy. " Observe," says he,
" that the vintage is always an image of the season
of judgment ; but the harvest, of the ingathering of
.the objects of God's final mercy." To reconcile these
two opposite views, we have only to attend to the
definition of harvest given by ,Mede. " The harvest,'
says Mede, " includes three things, the reaping, the
gathering in, and the grinding ; from whence it gene-
rally has a twofold meaning in parabolic writings,
that of slaughter and destruction, equivalent to reap-
ing and grinding ; that of restoration and safety, un-
der the image of gathering in." Of this there is an
example in Jerein. li. 33,

" The daughter of Babylon is aa a thrashing floor,
The time of her thrashing, yet a little while,
And the time of her harvest is come ;"

plainly referring to the judgments of God upon Ba-
"bylon.

So in the oracle concerning Damascus, Isa. xvii. 5,
it is said,

"It shall be as when one gathereth the standing harvest,
And his arm reapeth the ears of corn,
Or as when one gleaneth ears in the valley of Rephaim ;"

i. e. As Lowth observes, the king of Assyria shall
sweep away the whole body of the people, as the
reaper strippeth off the whole crop of corn, and the

HARVEST. 241

remnant shall be no more in proportion than the scat-
tered ears left to the gleaner,
.Joeliii. 13,

" Put ye in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe,
Come, get ye down, for the wine-presa is full, the vats over-
flow,
For their wickedness is great."

These last words explain the figurative language
which precedes. They are ripe for excision. The
Chaldee paraphrases this passage well, thus :

"Draw out the sword against them, the time of their end is

come.
Tread upon their mighty men slain, as men tread upon what

is in the wine-press.
Shed their blood, because their wickedness is multiplied."

The same comparison is used in Rev. xiv. 14, 15, 18,
where the person referred to as executing vengeance
is Jesus Christ himself, though angels assist in the
execution, to show, as Lowman notes, that this stroke
of vengeance on Rome is with all the force of a di-
vine hand. It is executed on orders brought by an
angel from the temple, or presence of God, from the
temple which is in heaven, ver. 17.

The harvest, in agricultural reckoning, is consider-
ed to be the end of the season, being the time ap-
pointed for gathering in the fruits of the earth, and
finishing the labours of the year. So in Matt. xiii.
39, our Lord says, " The harvest is the end of the
world, and the reapers are the angels."

In Matt. ix. 36, our Lord, seeing multitudes .com-
ing to hear him, remarks, " The harvest truly is plen-
teous," . e. many are willing, to receive instruction.
This was spoken at the feast of tabernacles, which
was an harvest.

Q

242 HARVEST... ...HEAD.

Homer, H. A. v. 67, . compares men falling thick in-
battle, to corn falling in ranks, in the harvest. And
the Indian Interpreter says, " If a king dreams that
he sees harvest reaped in his own country^ he will
soon hear of a slaughter of his people."

The metaphor of mowing or. reaping is used, in
most authors, to signify an excision or utter destruc-
tion of the subject. So Horace and Virgil have used
it ; Hoi-. 1. 4, od, 14 ; Mn. 1. 10, v. 513. And in Ho-
mer, mowing is a symbol of war ; the straw signifies
the slain, and;the crop or corn, those that escape. - H.
t. v. 221.

But harvest is also used in a good sense, as in Matt,
ix. 37 ; Luke x. 2 ; John iv. 35.

And so in Jer. viii. 20, " The harvest is past, the
summer is'ended, and we are not saved ;" *. e. the time
in which we expected to be saved, is past.

HATE. See under Love.

HEAD, in general, as being the governing part of
man, 'always implies rule; and therefore the symbols
about the head, must shew the qualities and extent of
the power to rule.

The head of a people, signifies their king or chief
governor.

The heads of a people, their princes or magistrates.

To have a great head, portends principality and
empire.

For the hair of the head, see Hair.

Christ is called the head over all things to the
church, Eph.i. 23, &e. The Apostle, in this passage,
seems to have respect to the famous, statue of Diana,
who was the great goddess of these Ephesians. Her
image was that of a woman, and her body covered or

HEAD......HEAT. 243

filled with the breasts of a woman, to denote, as Je-
rome tells us, " that she was the nurse, supporter, and
life of all living creatures ;" or, as Macrobius informs
us, Saturn. 1. 1 , c. 20, " She represented the earth or
nature, by whose nourishment the whole universe is
supported." Now this gives a beautiful turn to the
Apostle's expression. The church of Christ is that
body, that -x^vfM,, or fulness, which he upholds and
enriches by his bounty. Diana was esteemed the
nurse of all things, and her many breasts denoted her
various methods and sources by which she conveyed
her nourishment to the universe: such a one, the
Apostle. tells the Ephesians, Christ really was, for he
filleth all things with all things. He filleth the church
and all its members with a bountiful and rich variety
of blessings : hence John, who lived long at Ephesus,
uses the same manner of expression* John i. 16,
" And from his fulness we have all received grace for
grace; 5 ' i.e. of every grace or celestial gift, conferred
above measure upon him, his disciples have received
a portion, according to their measure. See Chandler
on Ephesians ; Ewald on, the same.

HEAT. In Isa. xlix. 10, and Rev. vii. 16, there
. is a reference to the burning wind of the desart, the
Simoom or Samiel,. described by travellers as exceed-
ingly pestilential and fatal. It is highly probable that
this was the instrument with which God destroyed the
army of Sennacherib, 2 Kings xix. 7, 35. Its effects
are evidently alluded to in Ps. ciii. 15, 16, and in
Jer. iv. 11. Thevenot mentions such a wind, which,
in 1658, suffocated 20,000 men in one night, and
another which, in 1655, suffocated 4000 persons. It
sometimes burns up the corn when near its maturity,

244 / HEAT. :

and hence the image of " corn blasted before it be
grown up," used in 2 Kings xix. 26. Its effect is not
only to render the air extremely hot and scorching,
but to fill it with poisonous and suffocating vapours.
The most violent* storms that Judea was subject to,
came from the desarts of Arabia. "Out of the south
cometh the whirlwind," says Job xxxvii. 9. " And
there came a great wind from the wilderness? Job i.

19.

" And Jehovah shall appear over them,
And his arrow shall go forth as the lightning ;
And the Lord* Jehovah shall sound the trumpet,
And shall march in the whirlwinds of the south."

. ...... ....'.:.. Zech. iz. 14

* The 91st Psalm, which speaks of divine protec-
tion, describes the plague as arrows, and in those
winds there are observed flashes of fire. And there-
fore, in Num. xiii. 3. the place in which the plague
was inflicted, is for that reason called Taberah, i. e. a
burning; A plague is called "ISIj defter,' as a desart
is called medeber, because those winds came from the
desart, and are real plagues.

This hot wind, when used as a symbol, signifies the
tire of persecution, or else some prodigious wars which
destroy men. For wind signifies war ; and scorching
heat signifies persecution and destruction.

So in Matt. xiii. 6, 21, and Luke viii. 6-13, heat
is tribulation, temptation, or persecution ; and in
1 Peter iv. 12, burning tends to temptation.

A gentle heat of the sun, according to the Oriental
Interpreters signifies the favour and bounty of the
prince ; but great- heat denotes punishment.

Hence the burning of the heavens, is a portentum
explained in Liyy, 1. 3, c. 5, of slaughter.

HEAT.... ..HEAVEN. 245

And thus in Ps. cxxi. 6,

" The sun shall not smite thee by day,
Nor the moon by night,"

s in the next place explained thus :

" Jehovah shall preserve thee from all evil,
He shall preserve thy soul."

HEAVEN. There is, says Daubuz, a threefold
world, and therefore a threefold heaven. The invisi-
ble, the visible, and the political, among men, which
last may be either civil or ecclesiastical.

Wherever the scene is laid, heaven signifies sym-
bolically the ruling power or government; that is,
the whole assembly of the ruling powers, which, in
respect of the subjects we earth, are a political heaven,
being over and ruling the subjects, , as the natural
heaven stands over and rules the earth.

So that according to the subject, is the term to be
limited; and therefore Artemidorus, writing in the
times of the Roman emperors, makes Italy to be the
heaven: ," As heaven ? says he, "is the abode of
gods, so is Italy of. kings."

The Chinese call their monarch Tiencu, the Son
of Heaven, meaning thereby the most powerful mo-
narch. And thus in Matt. xxiv. 30, heaven is syno-
nymous to powers and, glory : and when Jesus says,
" the. powers, of the heaven shall be shaken," it is easy
to conceive that he meant, that the kingdoms of the
world should, be overthrown to submit to his king-
dom.-- -..' ?' ''< ' : '':' ,;':-. ' ' ,. ' ...:

Any government is a world, and therefore in Isa. li.
: 15 r .l6, heaven and earth signify a political universe,
a kingdom pr polity. Arid in ch. Ixv. 17, a, new

246 HEAVEN.

heaven and a new earth, signify a new government,
new kingdom, new people. (See under Heaven and
Earth.)

A door opened, in heaven, is the beginning of a
new kind of government.

To ascend up into heaven, signifies to be in full
power to obtain rule and dominion. And thus is the
symbol to be understood in Isa. xiv. 13, 14, where the
king of Babylon says,

" I will ascend into heaven,

I will exalt my throne above the stars of God."

- To descend from heaven, signifies symbolically, to
act by a commission from heaven. And thus our Sa-
viour uses the word "descending," John i. 51, in
speaking of the angels acting by Divine commission,
at the command of the Son of Man.

To fall from heaven, signifies to lose power and
authority, to be deprived of the power to govern, to
revolt or apostatize.

The heaven opened. The natural heaven, being
the symbol of the governing part of the political
world, a new face in the natural, represents a new
face in the political.

- Or, the heaven may be said to be opened when the
day appears, and consequently shut when night comes
on, as appears from Virgil, JSn. 1. 10, v. 1, " The
gates of heaven unfold/' &c. And thus the Scripture,
in a poetical manner, speaks of the doors of heaven,
Ps. Ixxviii. 23 ; of the heaven being shut, I Kings viii.
35 ; and in Ezek. i. 1, the heaven is said to be opened.

Midst of heaven-, may be the air, or the region be-
tween heaven and earth ; or, the middle station between
the .corrupted earth and the throne of God in heaven.

HEAVEN......HEAVEN AND EARTH. 247

And in this sense, the air is ,the proper place where
God's threatenings and judgments should be denoun-
ced. Thus, in 1 Chron. xxi. 15, it is said that David
saw the angel of the Lord stand between the earth
and the heaven, as he was just going to destroy Je-
rusalem with the pestilence. The angel's hovering
there, was to shew that there was room to -pray for
mercy, just as God was going to inflict the punish-
ment, it. had not as yet done any execution. .

HEAVEN AND EARTH. These, in the pro-
phetic language, often signify the political state or
condition of persons of different ranks in this present
world. -

The heaven of the political world is the sovereignty
thereof, whose host and stars are the powers that
rule ; namely, kings, princes, peers, councillors, ma-
gistrates ; and this is perhaps what Sapor, king of
Persia, meant, in his address to Constantius, the em-
peror, where, speaking in the Oriental style, he calls
himself " King of kings, brother of the sun and moon,
companion, of the stars," &c.

The earth is the peasantry, plebeians, or common
race of man, who possess no power, but are ruled by
superiors. ...

Of such a heaven and arth, we may understand
mention to be made in Haggai ii. 6, 7, 21, 22, re-
ferred to in Heb. xii. 26, meaning the political hea-
vens and earth. Also, Jerem. iv. 23, 24,

"I beheld the earth, and lo, disorder and confusion,
The heavens also, and there was no light.
I beheld the mountains, -and lo, they trembled,
And all the hills shook."

As if the world were returned to chaos again.

248 HEAVEN AND EARTH; HE-GOAT.

And in Isa. li. 15, 16,

' . ' r * '

" I am Jehovah, thy God,

Who divided the sea (f. e. the Red Sea), when the waves

.thereof, roared; .... '

Jehovah God of hosts is his name :

And' put my words (t. e. my law) in thy mouth,

And covered thee with the- shadow of iny hand,

(i. e, protected thee in thy march to Canaan,)
That I might plant the heavens, and lay the foundations of

the earth,
(t. e. make thee a state, and build thee into a political

world,) ,

And say unto Sion, Thou art my people."

See also Isa. xxxiv. 2, 4, 5 ; Isa. xiiu 10 ; Ezek.
xxxii. 7 > Matt. xxiv. 29.

Such modes of speaking were usual in the Oriental
poetry and philosophy, which made a heaven and
earth in every thing, z. e. a superior and inferior in
every part of nature ; and as we learn from Maimoni-
des, quoted by Mede, who affirms that the Arabians
in his time, when they would express that a man was
fallen into some great calamity, used to say, " His
heaven has fallen to the earth ;" meaning, his supe-
riority or prosperity is much diminished.

" To look for a new heavens or a new earth," 2
Peter aii. 13, then, may mean, to look for a new order
of the present world, or, as the Scripture phrases it,
Matt. xix. 28, Acts iii. 21, " The regeneration, or the
restitution of all things.'* .

HE-GOAT. Daniel viii. 5, And as I was con.
sidering, behold an he-goat came from the west, on
the face of the whole earth, and touched not the
ground ; and the goat had a notable horn between his
eyes," &c.

The Macedonians are called -/Egeades, from A*y$,

HE-GOAT. 249

a goat ; see Justin, 1. 7 ; and from the same author
we learn, that the goat, since their king Caranus, was
the arms of Macedon;

Bishop Chandler, in his Vindication, p. 154, ob-
serves, " That princes and nations being of old paint-
ed by their, symbols, which Procopius calls yva^a-ftctfree,
they came afterwards to be distinguished by writers
with the names of then? symbols, as by their proper
appellations. Yet Alexander derived himself from
Jupiter Ammon, and he and his successors had two
ram's horns on their coins, the very description of the
former beast. But this happened not till after he had
subdued Egypt, when, being lord of Persia, he might
adopt her arms or ensigns for his own." Dr Newton
observes, " That Alexander's son by Roxana was
named ^Egus, or the sou of the Goat, and that some
of his successors are represented in their coins with
goats' horns."

" And touched not the ground," denoting the ra-
pidity of his conquests. But the Syriac renders it,
" Nothing touched or hindered him in the earth," i. e.
he met with no impediment or material molestation.

The " notable, or conspicuous horn," is Alexander
himself, as explained by the angel, v. 21.

Verse 6, " He came to the ram," &c., i. e. he en-
countered Darius.

Verse 9, The single, or small horn, is understood
by some to mean Antiochus Epiphanes, whom Poly-
bius calls Epimanes, or the Madman. But interpre-
ters are by no means agreed on this subject.

See the articles Horn and Leopard.

The particulars which illustrate the fulfilment of
this remarkable prophecy may be found at large .in

250 HE-GOAT..,. ..HORN.

the following authors : Arrian's Expedition of Alex-
ander ; Quintus Ciirtius ; Diodorus Siculus; Plu-
tarch's Life of Alexander. And amongst the mo-
derns, Rollin's Ancient History ; Prideaux's Con-
nections ; Mede's Works ; Newton on the Prophe-
cies; Wintle on Daniel; Spanheim on the Use of
.Coins, &c. &c.

HORN. Horns naturally stand for power, as the
great strength of those animals, which possess them,
is placed there. They were, on that account, an-
ciently the hieroglyphical symbols of power, (see the
Oneirocritics, c. 82, 83, et alia /) for it has been
justly observed, that hieroglyphics were a source of
metaphors in the ancient eastern languages. Thus,
in Amos vi. 13, where it is said,

" Ye that rejoice in a thing of nought,
That say, have we not taken to ourselves dominion by our
own strength^"

Instead of " strength," the Hebrew has horns.

So, in Deut. xxxiii. 1 7, horns are put for strength
and power :

" His beauty shall be that of a young bull,
And his horns shall be the horns of a rhinoceros,
With these he shall push together the people to the extre-
mities of the land.

- Such are the ten thousands of Ephraim,
Such the thousands of Manasseh !"

See this blessing on the head of Joseph well illustrated
in Joshua xvii. 14-18.

. In 1 Kings xxii. 11, we find a striking display of
symbolical action on the part of the false prophet
Zedekiah. He made him horns of iron, and said,
" Thus saith Jehovah, With these thou shalt push the
.Syrians, until thou have consumed them." . ..-,-;'".

HOBN: 251

Jerem. xlviii. 25,

" The horn of Moab is cut off,
And his arm is broken, saith Jehovah;"

t. e. His strength is decayed, he is no longer formid-
able. ;

Lament, ii. 3, The subdued and desolate state of
the Jews is described by saying, " He hath tut off in
his fierce anger every horn of Israel."

On the other hand, promises of encouragement are
held out in such language as this : Micah iv. 13,

" Arise, and tread out the grain, O daughter of Sion ;
Thine horn will I make iron,
And thine hoof will I make brass.
And thou shalt beat in pieces many people,
And thou shalt devote the gain from them to Jehovah,
And their substance, to the Lord of the whole earth."

This opinion of the strength of animals consisting
in their horns, was held by profane writers, as by
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. 1. 4, c. 8 ; JSlian, Hist. Anim.
1. 16, c. 23. And we find Horace, 1. 3, Ode 21, say-
ing,

f Tu spem reducis mentibus anxiis,
Viresque addis et cornua-pauperi ;"

i. e. Thou restorest hope to anxious minds, and addest
horns (meaning strength or confidence) to the poor.

Horns are attributed to Bacchus by Ovid, Metam.
1.4,

" Accedant capiti cornua, Bacchus ens."

And Valerius Flaccus ascribes horns to rivers, ou
account of their rapid and irresistible course, Argon.
1.6, v, 618,

; " Tune et terrificit undantem cornibus Hebrum.' ? :

252 HORN;

Claudian also has,

' - " taurina levantur

Cornua temporibus raucbs sudantia rivos."

And Spanheim, in his Treatise on Coins, mentions
some, in which rivers appear with horns.

Horns were also the symbol of royal dignity and
power ; and when they are distinguished by number ,
they signify so many monarchies. Thus, horn; sig-
nifies a monarchy, in Jerem. xlviii. 25, already quoted.
And in Zech. i. J8, &c., the four horns are the four
great monarchies, which had each of them subdued
the Jews. The ten horns, says Daniel, ch. vii. 24,
are ten kings. The ten horns spoken of in Rev. xiii.
1, as having ten crowns upon them, no doubt signify
the same thing, for so we have it interpreted in ch.
xvii. 12. The king of Persia is described by Ammi-
anus Marcellinus as wearing golden ram's horns by
way of diadem, 1. 69, c. 1, " Aureum capitis arietini
figmentum interstinctum lapillis pro diademate ges-
sit." And the effigy of Ptolemy with a ram's horn,
as exhibited in ancient sculpture, is mentioned by
Spanheim, Dissert, de Numism. Whence also the
kings of Media and Persia are depicted, by Daniel
viii. 20, under the figure of a horned ram.

When it is said in Dan. viii. 9, that out of one of
the four notable horns came forth a little horn, we
are to understand, that out of one of the four king-
doms, represented by the four horns, arose another
kingdom, "which became exceeding great." Some
understand by this, Antiochus Epiphanes; others,
one of the first Geesars; and others refer it to the
Turkish empire, and will have Egypt, Asia, and

HORN." 253

Greece, to be the three horns torn up or reduced by
the Turk. But, as Dr Zouch observes, the king-
dom possessed by Antiochus IV., surnamed Epi-
phanes, was that to which he legally succeeded by the
death of his brother Seleucus Philopater, the son of
Antiochus the Great. It was not a new or fifth
kingdom, arising out of any of the four kingdoms
into which that of Alexander was rent. It was lite-
rally a continuation of that kingdom, which com-
menced in Syria soon after the death of Alexander.
Antiochus Epiphanes was the 8th king of Syria.
After him are enumerated no less than nineteen kings
in regular succession, Antiochus 13th being the last.
If it be asked, what, then, is meant by the little horn ?
to give a definite reply would be presumptuous, after
so much learned controversy on this subject. Suf-
fice it to say, the more general opinion refers it to
Antichrist, or the Papal usurpator, St Paul's " man
of sin." See 2 Thess. ii. 9, 10 ; and Rev. xiii. 5, 6.
. Mede denies that the " little horn" can mean An-
tiochus Epiphanes, '-. because the reign of the little
horn extends to the time when the Ancient of Days
comes in fiery flames ; but Antiochus died 160 years
and more before the birth of Christ. And he asserts
that the horn is the same with the Antichrist of St
John.

Ezek. xxix. 21, "In that day I will cause the horn
of the house of Israel to bud," &c.

The enlargement of Jehoiachin is supposed to be
referred to. See 2 Kings xxv. 27 ; Jer. Hi. 31.

Daniel and his three companions were also ad-
vanced to authority. Dan. ii. 48, 49 ; in. 30. These

254 HORN.

marks of favour bestowed on the Jews were preludes
to their general restoration.

Horns are also .used in Hebrew to express rays of
light, from their resemblance to them, as being point-
ed, and* in general, pointing upwards. Hence we
find horn and lamp, conjoined in Ps.. cxxxii. 1 7. God
is thus represented in Deut. xxxiii, 2,

" From his right hand issued streams of light.""

And in Habak. iii. 4,

" His brightness was as the light,
. . Kays (lit. horns) streamed from his hand,

And there was the hiding-place of his power."

.A pencil or cone of rays, issuing from a point, di-
verges in the shape of a horn, as Newcome observes.

Moses is represented by the Jewish writers as
wearing horns ; i. e. his face shone with a divine
lustre, when he came down from Sinai, after his in-
tercourse with God.

The heathens also attribute horns to; the moon, and
to some of the supposed deities, for a similar reason.
Hence Valerius Flaccus, Argon. 1. 2, v. 55,

" Puraque nee gravido surrexit Cynthia cornu."

And again,

" Ardua suspicions raiuuentis cornua Luna."

And Ovid,

" Quam de cornigero de Jove natus erat.".
In Spanheim's Coins, there Is one where Jupiter
appears horned with this inscription, " Theos Am-

mon."

Messiah is, in Heb. i. 3, called " the brightness or
splendour of the Father's glory ;" and in Rev. i. 16,

HORN. 255

his countenance is described " as the sun shining in
his strength." And the light that shone round Paul
at his conversion, a light accompanying or proceeding
from the Saviour, is said to be a light above the
brightness of the sun.

From this meaning of the Hebrew term* and from
the action of the solar light upon the vegetable
world, as the great instrument of producing plenty,
came the notion in the Heathen Mythology of repre-
senting abundance by the emblem of a horn, the cor-
nucopia, the feigned horn of Amalthaea, by which it
was pretended Jupiter was nursed in his infancy,
Amalthaea being the name assigned to the goat sup-
posed to- have nursed him, and which was afterwards
converted into a star. See Ovid's Fasti, v. 117;
Hygin. Astron. ii. 13; whose horn was thenceforth
said to have the privilege, that whoever possessed it,
should immediately have what they desired ; whence
it came to be called the horn of plenty. And hence,
perhaps, the Septuagint render the name of one of
Job's daughters, viz. Kerenhappuch, by those words
" the horn of Amalthsea." See Callim. Hymn to Ju-
piter, lin. 48, 49,
; ** Thou drewest the swelling teat of that fam'd goat,

See also Parkhursfs Lexicon on Ko^svnfti, vbi
plura.

Luke i. 69, Jesus is called " a horn of salvation,"
i. e. a mighty Saviour, equivalent to " horn of David,"
in Ps. cxxxii. 17, already referred to. This title is
symbolical of the royal dignity and power of the
Messiah. He is the anointed King in Zion, Ps. ii. 6.
He is the King of kings and Lord of lords, which

256 HORN.

name he carries written on his vesture and thigh,
Rev. xix. 16. His kingdom is an everlasting king-
dom, which shall break in pieces and consume all
other kingdoms, Dan. ii. 44. He rules from sea to
sea, and from the river to the ends of the earth, Ps.
Ixxii. 8,; Zech. ix. 9, 10. All kings shall worship
him, and all nations shall. serve him. He is a king,
on whose head are many crowns, Rev. xix. 12. He
spoiled principalities and powers, and triumphed over
them. He hath the keys of Hades and of Death.

We have the expression in Scripture,; not unfre-
quentLy, of " horns of the altar," meaning the projec-
tions at the four corners, which were a symbol of the
Divine protection, the altar being regarded as an
asylum or sanctuary ; and therefore, when Amos
says, ch. Hi. 14, "The horns of the altar shall be cut
off, and fall to the ground;" the meaning is, that
there shall be no more atonements made thereon
the asylum or sanctuary, therefore, shall no more
stand. .'.:. ...

Those who fled to the altar .for protection, took
hold of the horns of it... Thus Adonijah did, when
afraid of Solomon, and Joab, in like manner,; but be-
cause the latter was guilty of wilful murder, he was
slain according to the law, Exod. xxi. 14.

The idolaters likewise had horns to their altars, for
they mimicked the true religion in all outward matters.
See Jerem. xvii. 1 ; -Amos iii. 14. And they alsOj
when they fled for ; protection, or implored the help
of their gods, were wont to take hold of the horns of
their altars. See Servius on Virgil, 1. 6; v. 124. and
Potter's Antiq. of Greece, .vol. i. p. 1^3.

Further, the altars were looked upon as the tables

HORN HORSE. 257

of the gods, and therefore, he who had caught hold
on the altar, was considered as one who was received
into friendship with the god to whom it was dedica-
ted, and therefore as one who was not to be punished
by man,

By Exodus xxi. 14, it appears that the altar of
holocausts was to the Jews an asylum for crimes un-
designedly committed. As to the practice of the
heathen in this respect, the proofs are copious; whole
tragedies of JSschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, being
founded on it. And the sanctuary of the altar was
held so sacred and inviolable, that JEschylus in one
place, amongst others, says, " That an altar was
stronger than a tower that it was an invincible
shield." (Supplices, v. 198.)

Hence, also no doubt, arose the custom, in more
modern times, of making churches, abbeys, and other
buildings, devoted to religious uses, an. asylum for
criminals, and a sanctuary for debtors.

HORSE. The horse, as Daubuz observes, was
of old used only for warlike expeditions, and not
barely to ride, draw, and drudge, as is now practised
with us.

Hence, in that noble description of the horse in the
book of Job, chap, xxxix. 18-25, there is no notice
taken of any quality of his but what relates to war.

So that the horse is the symbol of war and con-
quest. And therefore, when the Prophet Zechariah,
chap. x. 3, says that " God hath made Judah as his
goodly horse in the battle," the meaning is, that he
will make them conquerors over his enemies, glorious
and successful.

Thus, in Ps. xlv. 5, 3D% receb, to ride, is trans-

R

258 HORSE.

lated in the Septuagint by /Santevsir, to reign ; and in
several other places, to ride signifies to have domi-
nion; Deut. xxxii. 13, Ps. Ixvi. 12, Isa. Iviii. 14.
Agreeably to this, the Indian and other interpreters
say, that if any one dreams that he rides upon a ge-
nerous horse, it denotes that he shall obtain dignity,
fame, authority, prosperity, and a good name among
the people ; in short, all such things which may ac-
crue to a man by good success in martial affairs.

And hence, from the horse's being the instrument
of conquest, and therefore the symbol of the dignity,
prosperity, and success he causes, when Carthage was
founded, and a horse's head was dug up by the work-
men, the soothsayers gave out that the city would be
warlike and powerful; Justin. 'b- 18, c. 5.
As a horse- is a warlike, so is he also a swift,
creature, and is therefore not only tLe symbol of con-
quest, but of the speediness of it ; Joel ii. 4, Heb. i. 8,
Jer. iv. 13.

if the colour of the horse be given, it must be par-
ticularly considered. White is the symbol of joy,
felicity, and prosperity ; and therefore white horses
were used by conquerors on their days of triumph ;
Ovid de- Arte amandi, lib. 1, v. 214. And jt was,
and still is, the custom of the Eastern nations to ride
on white horses at the marriage cavalcade.

White horses were also looked upon by the ancients
as the swiftest; Hor. b. 1, sat. 7> v. 8; Virgil, J2n.
1. 12, v. 84.

By a white horse, therefore, all the good significa-
tions of a horse are greatly enhanced.

For a prince to dream that he rides armed, denote s
according to the Persian and Egyptian, in ch. 156,

HORSE. HOST OF HEAVEN. 259

that he shall overcome his enemies, and obtain great
renown in war.

So the woman riding upon a beast, Rev. xvii. 3,
is explained by the angel to be (v. 18) the great city
which reigns over the kings of the earth, viz. Rome.

Cant. i. 9,

" I have compared thee, O my love,
To a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots."

The comparison here may appear uncouth to the re-
fined manners of this age ; but the Greek and Latin
poets frequently compare a beautiful woman to an
heifer, a creature far inferior. Sophocles, Trach. 5,
532, so compares a delicate virgin. And Euripides
calls Polyxena fto<r%os i Hecuba 5, 526. And Horace
calls a young woman Juvenca, 1. 2, ode 5. See Du-
rell.

Vitringa thinks, that by the horses in Zech. x. 3,
the Maccabaean heroes and soldiers are meant.

In Rev. ch. 6, angels are described as sitting upon
horses of various colours, denoting thereby the promp-
titude and celerity of their movements in the execu-
tion of the divine purposes.

Horses were anciently consecrated to the sun,
2 Kings xxiii. 11, as Ovid in his Fasti, 1. 1, observes,
" The Persians sacrifice horses to the sun, that a slug-
gish victim may not be offered to a swift deity."

HOST OF HEAVEN. Daniel viii. 10, "And it
(the little horn) waxed great, even to the host of hea-
ven, and it cast down some of the host and of the
stars to the ground, and stamped upon them." See
also v. 11.

Considered by many to point out the aspiring na-
ture and usurping power of Antiochus Epiphanes, that

260 HOST OF HEAVEN.

would swell to such a pitch as to exceed all imagin-
able authority, so as to reach the stars, according to
Obadiah, v. 4, or, to ascend into heaven above the
stars, and to exalt his throne, like the king of Baby-
lon, in Isaiah-xiv. 13.' And in 2d Maccabees ix. 10,
Antiochus is described as the man who thought he
could reach to the stars of heaven.

The language that follows in this verse is, by an
usual and familiar metaphor in Scripture, applicable
to the Jews, or the then true church of God. Isa.
xxiv. 21, " the host of the high ones that are on high"
is explained by Vitringa of the Jewish rulers and
people. God's people have their citizenship in hea-
ven, and shine 'as <progg$, as lights or luminaries in
the world. See ch. xii. 3, and Rev. i. 20, where the
angels or governors of the churches are called stars.
The priests and Levites, like the angels, were also
continually waiting on the service of the King of
Heaven in the temple, as of old in the tabernacle ;
see Num. viii. 24 ; and these were that part of the
host, or the holy people, or people of the holy God,
as at v. 24, that were thrown down and trampled on.

Spencer, in his Treatise de legibus Heb. 1. 1, c. 4,
p. 202, takes notice, that the Scripture often borrows
expressions from military affairs, to accommodate it-
boif to the use of the tabernacle, and hence is the fre-
quent use of the term " host." The host of heaven,
and the prince of the host, he thinks must refer to the
body of the priests, who exercised the offices of their
warfare under the standards of the Deity. Now,
Antiochus overthrew some of the most celebrated lu-
minaries amongst the leaders of the Jewish people,
and reduced them to the lowest disgrace.

' HOST OF HEAVEN .HOUSE. 261

But this prophecy is thought, after all, to receive
its fulfilment, not by Antiochus, but by the Roman
state, which arose in the north-west part of those na-
tions which composed the body of the Goat, and was
very small in the beginning, but became very great
afterwards.

See Wintle on Daniel, Mede's Works, Zouch oh
the Prophecies, Bishop Newton, and others.

Host of heaven, Gen. ii. 1, signifies the sun, moon,
and stars, under the symbol of an army ; in which the
sun is considered as the king, the moon as his vice-
gerent or prime-minister in dignity, the stars and
planets as their attendants, and the constellations as
the battalions and squadrons of the army drawn up
in order, that they may concur with their leaders to
execute the designs and commands of the sovereign.

And thus, according to this notion, it is said in the
song of Deborah, Judges v. 20, " the stars in their
courses fought against Sisera."

HOUSE is often used in Scripture for the family,
children, and servants.

Gen. vii. 1, " Enter thou and all thy house (family)
into the ark."

Exod. i. 21, " And it came to pass, because the
midwives feared God, that he made them houses? i. e.
he prospered their families.

And so in I Sam. ii. 35 ; 2 Sam. vii. 27 ; 1 Kings
xi. 38.

And so in Euripides, Bacch. 389, " Wisdom is im-
moveable, and keeps together an house," an expres-
sion similar to that used by Solomon, Prov. ix. 1,

" Wisdom hath builded her house ;
She hath hewn out her seven pillars."

262 HOUSE....;.HUNGER AND THIRST.

And, therefore, in the symbolical language, houses,
palaces,. and sons, mutually explain each other.

Thus, according to the Persian and Egyptian in-
terpreters, ch. 148, " If a king dreams that he orders
a new palace to be built for his habitation, and it be
finished, it denotes that he shall beget a son and heir"
children, or rather sons, being the settlement of a
house or family.

2 Sam. vii. 11, "Also the Lord telleth thee, that
he will make thee an house ;" i. e. he will give thee
offspring, who may receive and may preserve the
royal dignity.

Ps. xlix. 12, " Their inward thought is, that their
houses shall continue for ever;" i. e. that their pos-
terity shall always flourish. But Durell has remark-
ed, that all the ancient versions read otherwise ; they
read keberem, instead of kerebem, and then the sense

k'

" Their sepulchres shall be their houses for ever ; .
Their dwelling-place to all generations."

Gen. xliii. 16, " Joseph said to the ruler of his
house," *.e. to the manager of his domestic concerns.

Isa. xxxvi. 3, " Eliakin, who was over the house,
or household ? i. e. his steward.

Gen. xxx. 30, " When shall I provide for mine
own house also ?" t. e. get wealth to maintain my fa-
mily. See 1 Tim. v. 8.

HUNGER and THIRST are the symbols of af-
fliction.

Thus, in Deut. viii. 3, it is said, "He humbled
thee, and suffered thee~to hunger," where the latter is
the instrument of the former.

HUNGER AND THIRST... HYSSOP... INCENSE. 263

So Deut. xxxii. 24, "They shall be burnt with
hunger ;" i. e. they shall be tormented or afflicted.

So. to fast is often called to afflict onds soul, as in
Lev. xyi. 29-31, Isa. Iviii. 5.

In Aristophanes (Aves), hunger is proverbially
used for great misery. See 1 Cor. iv. 11, 2 Cor. xi.
27, Phil. iv. 12.

By several expressions of our Saviour, to hunger
and thirst signifies to be in want of hearing God's
.word; that is, to be hindered by persecution from
worshipping God in peace. See Ps. 23 ; Eccles.
xxiv. 19; John iv. 13, 14, vi. 35; Amos viii. 11;
Ezek. vii. 26.

HYSSOP, an herb of detersive and cleansing qua-
lities, used in sprinkling the blood of the paschal
lamb ; Exod. xii. 22.

In cleansing the leprosy ; Ley. xiv. 4-6, &c.

In composing the water of the purification ; Num.
xix. 6; and sprinkling it, verse 18. It was a type
or emblem of the purifying virtue of the bitter suffer-
ings of Jesus Christ.

Pliny often mentions its virtues : " Calidum in
spongia appositum, adjecto aut hyssopi fasciculo,
medetur sedis vitiis." Nat. Hist. 1. 23, c. 1, and in
other places.

INCENSE is the symbol of prayer, as mentioned
in Rev. v. 8, and viii. 4, in both which passages, as
in many others, the language is borrowed from the
Old Testament ritual. So in Mai. i. 11, where there
is a prophecy of the conversion of the Gentiles, it is
given under Jewish images :

" My name shall be great among the nations,
And in every place shall incense be brought unto my name,
And a pure offering."

264 INCENSE.

On which passage, see Mede's Christian Sacrifice,
ch. 6.

The same is the case in Zech xiv, 16, where the
prophet speaks according to Jewish ideas. On this
Michaelis observes : " Non quidem Levitice, sed in
spiritu et veritate, perinde ac festum Paschatos et
Pentecostes." 1 Cor. v. 7, 8, " Sub exitum anni
gratiae, seu finem mundi -uberrimam tune habituri
messem donorum gratia? et Spiritus Sancti." Bib.
Halae, 1720. See Newcome.

This Jewish mode of speaking is observable in
another place. The smoke of incense, like all other
smokes, was said to ascend. So, speaking of Corne-
lius, Acts x. 4, the angel says, " Thy prayers and
thine alms are come up for a memorial before God."

In Rev. v. 8, golden bowls full of incense are men-
tioned, fit representations, as Lowman observes; of
the prayers of the Church, and expressive of the most
solemn worship. Thus the Psalmist, Ps. cxli. 2,
" Let my prayer be set before thee as incense." In
Rev. viii. 4, the smoke of the incense is said to as-
cend up before God out of the angel's hand ; an al-
lusion to the constant offering of incense in the tem-
ple, and to God's gracious acceptance of their wor-
ship.

Things thus represented in heaven, prefigure things
here on earth, says Dr Henry More, and these cere-
monies of the temple, the devotions of the Christians,
whose prayers are here represented as coming up in
remembrance before God.

In the Oneirocritics, incense is the symbol of fa-
vour and good fame.

To incense men with a censer, signifies, according

INCENSE.... ..IRON. 265

to the Indian, ch. 28, to speak harsh words, but sweet
at the same time, or profitable to them the harshness
being signified by the fire, and the sweetness by the
incense.

IRON is the symbol of strength. Ferrarius de re
metall, p. 211, says, " Ferrum duritie superat omnia
fere metalla ; hinc ad opera quae diutissime durant,
facienda conducit, praecipue arma." Isa. xlviii. 4,
" Thy neck is as an iron sinew."

Iron requires the strongest fire of all the metals to
melt it. It is sometimes made the symbol of sharp
afflictions. See Deut. iv. 20 ; 1 Kings viii. 51.
Since iron requires the strongest fire of all metals to
fuse it, there is a peculiar propriety in the expression,
" a furnace for iron," or an iron furnace for violent
and sharp afflictions.

Ps. cvii. 10, " Being bound in affliction and iron ;"
i. e. by a hendiadis, bound in afflictive iron.

Dan. ii. 33, 41, " The legs (of the image) were of
iron, his feet part of iron, and part of clay." See Je-
rome's commentary on this passage, quoted by Bishop
Newton and Josephus, on the same subject, Antiq.
b. 10, ch. 1, 4 ; and Mede's Works, b. 4, letter 6.

Dan. vii. 7, the fourth beast is said to have great
iron^ teeth. That this and the former both denote the
Roman power has been well proved by many.

Jerem. xv. 12,

" Shall he break iron in pieces, :

Iron from the North, and brass ?"

i. e. as Blayney explains it, " Shall the enemy crush
or overpower one whom I have made like the hardest
iron and brass ;" alluding to what God -had said to

266 IRON.

the prophet, when he first engaged him in his ser-
vice/' ch. i. 18.

"- Iron from the North," is supposed to denote, in
a primary sense, that species of hardened iron or
.steel, called in Greek, Chalybs, from the Chalybes, a
people bordering -on the Euxine Sea, and consequent-
ly lying to the north of Judea, by whom the art of
tempering, steel is said to have been discovered.

Jerem. xvii. 1, " The sin of Judah is written -with
a pen of iron ;" i. e. Idolatry was indelibly fixed in
their affections and memory.

1 Kings xxii. 11, Zedekiah the false prophet makes
. use of horns of iron symbolically, and says to Ahab,
* With these," i. e. with a strength such as is repre-
sented by these, " thou shalt gore the Syrians, until
thou have destroyed them."

Prov.,xxvii. 17,

" As iron is sharpened by iron,
So a man is sharpened by the countenance of his friend."

i. e. receives alacrity, strength, and spirits.

Ezek. iv. 3 } "Take unto thee a plate of iron."
Probably such as cakes were baked on. Taylor'?
Heb. Cone. This may denote the strong tranche
of the besiegers, or their firmness and perseveranct
in the siege.

Rev. ix. 9, " They had breastplates, as it were
breastplates of iron."

This denotes, says Daubuz, that the Saracens
should be a bold, hard, mischievous enemy, being so
well armed for that purpose. And this their great
victories and conquests have sufficiently .verified.

It is observable, that the natural locust hath about
its body a pretty hard shell, of the colour of iron, to

IRON.... ..ISLAND; 267

which there is an allusion in Claudian, Epigr. 33, so
that herein the symbol of the breastplate is exactly
suited to the natural locust.

That iron denotes strength appears from Dan. ii.
40, where it is said, " Iron, which breaketh in pieces,
and subdueth all things."

ISLAND. It is certain that the Hebrews did
not mean the same as we do by islands, that is, lands
encompassed with water all around ; but simply coun-
tries or regions at a distance, such as they could not
reach without crossing the sea, or such as had a line
of sea-coast. Hence Lowth for most part renders the
Hebrew term Up'* ft, anm, by distant lands. Bochart
has shewn, with much probability, that the countries
peopled by Chittin, the grandson of Japhet, are Italy
and the adjacent provinces of Europe, which lie along
the Mediterranean Sea. The proper translation of
'ft in many passages would be, " the region which is
by the sea-side." Mede thinks the Greek '<, derived
from '& and that ^Bgyptus is <, Cuphti, ^Ethiopia,
utcc. Theophi, &c. Disc. 50.

Zeph. ii. 1 1,

" Jehovah will be terrible against them
For he will famish all the gods of the earth ;
And all the islands of the nations
Shall bow themselves unto him, every one from his place."

By the earth, says Sir Isaac Newton, on Daniel,
p. 276, the Jews understood the great continent of
all Asia and Africa, to which they had access by
land : And by the isles of the sea, they understood
the places to which they sailed by sea, particularly
all Europe."

The prophet here foretells the gradual fall of ido-

268 ISLAND.

latry, and its deep, and at length deadly wound, by
the spreading of the Gospel.

Rev. vi. 14, " Every mountain and island- were
moved out of their places." Great public calamities
are described in' the prophets, as if the order of na-
ture were overturned ; so that the expressions here
and in ch. xvi. 20, are not to be understood literally.

Every place or haven to which ships resorted, says
Daubuz, was by the Jews called an island. Thus
Tyre, as it was anciently, is called the isle, in Isa.
xxiii. 2, 6, though seated only near the sea ; and the
Tyrians are called " the inhabitants of the isle," v. 3,
11. And because the Hebrews looked upon islands
as places of merchandise, to which men went to traf-
fic and fetch riches, hence it comes, that an island, in
their notion, is akin to Mart-town, a rich, trading, po-
pulous city, a place whence riches are brought. Thus
in Ezek. xxvii. 3, Tyre is called a mart, l^a-o'giov, of
the people from many islands. And the whole chap-
ter, together with the Targum, is a proof of this, es-
pecially the 15th verse, where it is said, " many isles
were the merchandise of thine hand." So in Isa. Ix.
9, islands and ships are mentioned in order to pro-
duce and bring silver and gold.
. Hence ships are the symbols of profit and riches.
See Ship.

In Euripides, f/ti^etg ir^xm A<p)r, a great haven of
riches signifies a great revenue. (Orest. v. 1077-)

So that islands ^ symbolically signify riches, reve-
nues, ways of trading, and the like. And thus Ame-
rica and the West Indies may, in the Hebrew style,
be termed islands to Britain, Spain, &c. because of
the commerce and traffic between them. . -

ISLAND.... ..KEY. 269

Hence in Isa. xxiii. 4, it is said of Tyre :

"The harvest of the river washer revenues,
And she became the mart of the nations."

He compares their trade by sea to the overflowing of
the Sihor or Nile, and says that it brings them riches,
as the Nile does to Egypt by its fertility.

Job xxii. 30, " He shall deliver the island of the
innocent." ~

Dureli observes, that Ai here is not a substantive,
but an adverb, and translates it thus : " The innocent,
wherever he is, will deliver himself and deliverance
shall be to thee by the purity of thine hands."

KEY, is used as a symbol of government, power,
and authority.

Isa. xxii. 22,
'*- 1 will lay the key of the house of David upon his shoulder."

See Lowth's note on the passage. In allusion to
the image of the key as the ensign of power, the un-
limited extent of that power is expressed, with great
clearness as well as force, by the sole and exclusive
authority to open and shut. Our Saviour, therefore,
has on a similar occasion made use of a like manner
of expression. Matt. xvi. 19? and in Rev. iii. 7, has
applied to himself the very words of the Prophet.
"He that hath the key of David, he that openeth,
and no .man shutteth ; and shutteth and no man
openeth."

Matt. xvi. 19,
" And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven."

I will give, i. e. after my resurrection, the keys,
'. e. the power of preaching the Gospel officially, of
administering the sacraments, and of exercising church

270 KEY.

discipline, as a steward of the mysteries of God, and
as a faithful servant whom the Lord hath set over his
household, not for domination, but for edification.

Of the kingdom of heaven not of earth.

Bernard remarks on this passage : " Quaenam tibi
major videtur et dignitas et potestas dimittehdi pec-
cata, an praedia dividend! ? Sed noii est compafatio.
Habent hsec infima et terrena judices suos, Reges et
Priricipes terrse. Quid fines alios iuvaditis ? Quid
falcem vestram in alienam messem extenditis ? ; Non
quia indigni vos, sed quia indignum vobis talibus in-
sistere, quippe potioribus occupatis." Nor is the ob-
servation of Prideaux, bishop of Worcester, unde-
serving of quotation: " Peter obtained no supremacy
over the rest of the Apostles ; he received the keys
with the rest, not above the rest,- and those, not of-
earth, but of heaven, as being first in age, zeal, and
boldness, not in office to feed Christ's sheep, not his

own."

Peter may be said to have opened the kingdom of
heaven, as being the first who preached the gospel to
the Jews after his Master's ascension, Acts, Ch. ii. and
to the Gentiles, Acts, Ch. x.

Rev. ix. I, and xx. 1, "the key of the abyss ;" '. e.
a commission to open it, to let loose Satan to deceive,
the nations.

On this last passage, Henry More remarks, "A
fallen star signifies a lapsed spirit, and the having the
key of the bottomless pit given him, denotes his pow-
er in the kingdom of darkness, of which a key is the
symbol."

Rev.i. 18, " The keys of Hades and of death ;"
V. e. having power over the separate state of departed-

KEY. 271

spirits ; to call men out of this life into the invisible
state, to raise them from death at last, and to reunite
soul and body at the resurrection. See the Orphic
hymn to Pluto, quoted by Parkhurst.

The heathen to denote the government of Pluto,
and the rest of the infernal gods, assigned to them
the keys of the infernal pits. And, therefore, Pluto
and Proserpine were represented with keys in their
hands. Aristophanes says of Juno, whom the Pagan
world supposed to be that deity who presided over
the nuptial rite, that she keeps the keys of marriage.
Silence is represented in Sophocles, (Oed.) by a golden
key on the tongue. And in the Arabian writers,
Soliman Ben Abdalmalek had the title of the key of
goodness, because he had set at liberty all the wretches
in prison, and done good to all his subjects.

As stewards of a great family, especially of the
royal household, bore a key, probably a golden one,
as the lords of the bedchamber do, in token of their
office, the phrase of giving a person a key, naturally
grew into an expression of raising him to great power.

Key is used also as a symbol of ability to interpret
Scripture. Luke xi. 50, " Ye have taken away the
key of knowledge." And, according to the same
analogy; "to open the Scriptures," Luke xxiv. 32, is
to shew the true meaning of them, whereby others
may understand them.

It is said that authority to explain the law and the
prophets was given among the Jews by the delivery
of a key ; and of one Rabbi Samuel we read, that
after his death, they put his key and his tablets into
his coffin, because he did not deserve to have a son,
to whom he might leave the ensigns of his office. If

272 KEY KILL OR SLAY.

the Jews really had such a custom in our Saviour's
time, the above expression may seem a beautiful re-
ference to it. Parkhurst on */?.

KILL or SLAY. To kill or slay, is to be ex-
plained according to the nature of the subject spoken
of.

To kill men, means to destroy them utterly. Matt.
x. 28, " Fear not them who kill the body, but are not
able to kill the soul."

To kill a kingdom, is to destroy utterly the power
it had to act as such for acting and living are analo-
gical to each other. And government is the life of
the commonwealth. And, therefore, as long as the
commonwealth can perform the actions of govern-
ment, so long it lives ; if they are stopped, that life
dies.

Wrath is said to kill a man, Job v. ii. either by
its injurious effects, when indulged, upon the human
frame or by leading them to commit furious deeds,
and so bringing them under the extreme penalty of
the law, or as offending God, and provoking him to
cut them off.

Prov. xxi. 25. The desire of the slothful is said to
kill him, because he lacks activity to procure the de-
sired object lawfully, and has recourse to ruinous
means of gratifying his desires. -. .

2 Cor. iii. 6, " The letter," f . e. of the law of God,
is said to kill.

It condemns and denounces the most solemn pe-
nalties, even that of death, upon every transgressor,
leaving no hope, and furnishing no strength.

Hosea vi. 5,

" Therefore have I hewn them by the prophets,
I have slain them by the words of my mouth."

KILL OB, SLAY... ..KING. 273

i. e. Lhave been most importunate with them. See
similar expressions from. Terence and Menander,
quoted by Newcome.

KING signifies the possessor of the supreme power,
whether lodged in one or more persons.

Prov. viii. 15, 16.

" By me kings reign, and princes decree justice,
By me princes rule, and nobles, even all the judges of the
earth."

It also frequently signifies a succession of kings.

And king and kingdom are synonymous, as ap-
pears from Dan. vii. 17, 23.

It is applied especially to God, as sovereign over
all. Ps. x. 16,

" Jehovah is king for ever and ever."

Ps. xxix. 10,

" Jehovah sitteth upon the flood,
Jehovah sitteth king for ever.""

Also Ps. xliv. 4, and others frequently. It is applied
to the Messiah.

Ps. ii. 6,

" I have set my king upon my holy hill of Zion."

It is applied to all true Christians, Rev. i. 6, who
are consecrated to God as kings and priests.

In 1 Peter ii. 13, 17, it particularly signifies the
Roman emperor, whom the Greek writers call king.
See Josephus de Bello, 1. 3, c. 7, 3.

Moloch, the name given to an idol worshipped by
the Ammonites and others, in the Hebrew language
signifies king, and is generally translated by the Sep-
tuagint " the ruler ;" and in Jerem. xxxii. 35, they
call him Moloch ike king. The sun is supposed to
have been .worshipped under this name, as the king

s

274 KING.

or lord of day. And the Heathen deity Saturn, is
understood to correspond to the Moloch of the Scrip-
tures, as appears by the similarity of their rites, and
the sacrifices offered to them. See Diod. Sic. 1. 20.
It is applied to Satan in Rev. ix. 11, for though the
natural locusts have no king, see Prov. xxx. 27, yet
those figurative locusts mentioned by John have one,
who is the angel of the bottomless pit, the prince of
the power of darkness, justly called the destroyer.

It is applied to death, in Job. xviii. 14, who is
there called the " king of terrors."

In Job xli. 34, It is applied to the Leviathan or

crocodile.

" He looketh upon every thing with haughtiness,
He is a king over all the children of pride."

Hosea says, Ch. iii. 4, 5,

" The sons of Israel shall abide many days,
Without a king, and without a prince, &c.
Afterwards the sons of Israel shall return,
And shall seek Jehovah their God,
And David their kiny,

And shall reverence Jehovah and his goodness, in the latter
days."

This prophecy, which some refer to Zerubbabel,
and some to the Messiah, in all probability remains
to be accomplished. It is the opinion of Newcome,
that on the future return of God's people, an illustri-
ous king of this name and stock, will reign over Is-
rael, and transmit the kingdom to his descendants for
ever. Compare Jer. xxx. 9 $ Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 24
xxxvii. 24, 25.

In the new song, Rev. xv. 3, God is called the
*' king of saints;" "

"Bongs of the east," (Rev. xvi. 12). Mede and
Lowman both consider the Turks to be meant under

KING KINGDOM KISS. 275

this title. The latter thinks the Euphrates means
the Adriatic sea, and that an invasion of the Papal
territories is here intended.

KINGDOM. Used sometimes to signify heaven,
as in Matt, xxvi, 29 ; 2 Tim. iv. 18.

Also, government or supreme administration, 1
Sam. xviii. 8.

Also, the state of the Christian church under the
gospel dispensation ; Matt. iii. 2, &c.

Also, the royal priesthood of the true people of
God ; Exod. xix. 6 ; 1 Peter ii. 9

Kingdom of the stone, Dan. ii. 34, 44, and king-
dom of the mountain, Dan. ii. 35, 45, are both meant
of the kingdom of the Messiah.

See Mede's Works, p. 743, &c.

KISS. The symbol of idolatrous worship.

Hosea xiii. 2, " Let the men who sacrifice kiss the
calves." See 1 Kings xix. 18.

Thus Cicero describes a statue of Hercules, as hav-
ing "rictum ejus ac mentem paulo attritius, quod in
precibus et gratulationibus non solum adorari, verum
etiam osculari, solebant ;" in Verr. act 2, 1. 4, 43.

Job xxxi. 27, " Or my mouth hath kissed my
hand." There is here an evident allusion to the su-
perstitious rites of idolaters. The custom of kissing
the hand, in token of adoration, is very ancient, as
well as universal. The ground of it appears to be
awe or respect : thus Job, when he determines to be
silent before God, says, " I will lay my hand upon
my mouth ;" ch. xl. 4i

Pliny, where he enumerates strange customs, says,
" In worshipping, we use the- right hand for kissing,

276 KISS.

and move the whole body round : in Gaul, they pre-
fer using the left ;" Nat. Hist. b. 28, c. 2.

Apuleius observes, that many of Iris countrymen
applied their right hand to their mouths, the first fin-
ger being upon the thumb erect, in. order that they
might perform due adoration to the goddess Venus.

Lucian also remarks, that the poor, who had no-
thing to offer in sacrifice but the kissing of their
hands, were not excluded.

Demosthenes, being carried into a temple, is said
to have kissed his hand, in token of adoration.

The Syrian churches, to this day, when they re-
ceive the sacrament, are said to kiss the bread and
cup before they partake of them.

Thus courtiers kiss the king's hand when presented
to him, or when appointed to office j and it is cus-
tomary now in many countries to kiss the garment of
a superior, out of respect.

The holy kiss, or kiss of love, Rom. xvi. 16, 1 Cor.
xvi. 20, and elsewhere, was a mere transfer of the
common mode of salutation in Eastern countries, in
ancient times, into an affectionate expression of pure
attachment for the truth's sake, each saluting those of
their own sex only, as described in the Apost. Con-
stit.l. 2, C.-57. -This practice is mentioned by Justin
Martyr in his apology : " Prayers being ended, we
salute one another with a kiss, and then the bread
and cup are brought to the president." The men
and women sat apart in the Christian assemblies, the
same as was done in the Jewish synagogues.

Psalm ii. 12, "Kiss the son, lest he be angry." To
kiss in this place implies to reverence. Thus, " all

KISS.... ..KNEE LAMB. 277

the knees which have not bowed unto Baal, and every
mouth which hath not kissed him ;" 1 Kings xix. 18.

KNEE. To bow the knee is to worship ; 1 Kings
xix. 18 ; Rom. xi. 4.

Also, to pray ; Eph. iii. 14.

Also, to be in subjection ; Phil. ii. 10.

That kneeling was the posture of prayer, see 2
Chron. vi. 13; Dan. vi. 10; Luke xxii. 41 ; Acts
vii. 60, ix. 40, xx. 36, xxi. 5 ; Ezra ix. 5 j Eph. iii.
14.

Knees are sometimes put for persons, as in Job iv.
4 ; Heb. xii. 12.

LAMB, the symbol of meekness.

Isa. xi. 6, " Then shall the wolf take up his abode
with the lamb."

Isa. Ixv. 25, " The wolf and the lamb shall feed
together."

Jer. xi. 1 9, " For I was like a tame lamb that is
led to slaughter."

Hence it is the special and peculiar symbol of
Jesus Christ, who is declared by the Baptist to be the
Lamb of God, because he was to be sacrificed to him,
in order to take away the sins of the world. We
find Isaiah predicting his suffering under this charac-
ter, ch. liii. 7j

"It was exacted, and he was made answerable ;
And lie opened not liis mouth,
As a lamb that is led to the slaughter,
And as a sheep dumb before her shearers,
So he opened not his mouth."

See Acts viii. 32.

Jesus is recognised as such in the visions of John,
Rev.-v. 6, &c. "And lo, in the midst of the throne
stood a lamb, as. it had been slain."

278 LAMB.... ..LAMP.

- True Christians, who resemble their Master, have
the same name assigned to them, Luke x. 3, " Be-
hold, I send you forth as lambs among wolves." See
John xxi. 15.

The hypocritical assumption of this meekness, and
the carry ing on of persecution under a show of
charity to the souls of men, and bestowing absolu-
tions and indulgences on those, who conform to its
rules, appears to have given rise to the application of
this otherwise sacred title to Antichrist, Rev. xiii. 1 1,
"And I beheld another beast coming up out of the
earth, and he had two horns like a lamb, and he spake
as a dragon." To what particular power or period
this passage is applicable, it is extremely difficult to
decide. Every commentator differs from another.
Lowman tries to reconcile them, but I think unsuc-
cessfully.

LAMP, on account of its light, is the symbol of
government or a governor. Thus concerning the
law of God, the Psalmist says, Ps. cxix. 105, Thy
word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my
paths," the law being that whereby the king was to be
guided. And in 1 Kings xi. 36, a lamp signifies the
seat and domains, or else the perpetual succession of
a kingdom. The words are, " That my servant David
may have a lamp always before me in Jerusalem."
But the Septuagint have, " That my servant David
may have a seat or position." So the Septuagint turn
the Hebrew of 1 Kings xv. 4, by xA\**ttft[t* ; and it
follows u m<m> a remnant to settle a foundation.
But in 2 Kings viii. 19, they have Av^voy a lamp ; all
which expressions are parallel to this in 2 Sam. vii.. 13,
" I will establish the throne of his kingdom for ever."

LAM?. 279

This being more proper, and the rest being symboli-
cal expressions of the same promise of God.

The Oneirocritics apply the misfortunes that hap-
pen to the lamp, to the loss of a kingdom or power
to rule.

In the Greek Church, in the consecration of a
Bishop, among other symbolical ceremonies, there
was a lamp delivered to him, and to the Patriarch of
Constantinople, a double lamp.

In the eastern countries, weddings were celebrated
with lamps or torches, the bridegroom and bride, the
bridemen and bridemaids having each one in their
hands. And the same custom was observed among
the Greeks and Romans. See Matt. xxv. 1 ; Homer,
Iliad 6, v. 492,Eurip ; Phrenis.v. 346; Medea, v. 1027;
Virgil, Eclog. 8, v. 29-

The Jews used to light lamps at their festivals, a
custom sneered at by Persius, Sat. 5, v. 179- And
the same was common among the Romans, on occa-
sions of domestic rejoicing, the doors of the house
were hung with laurels, and illuminated with lamps.

Juvenal thus expresses himself in one of his Sa-
tires,

" Longos erexit janua ratnos.
Et matutinis operatur festa lucernis."

It appears from Tertullian, that the Christians
adopted this practice. He thus charges the alienated
disciples of the faith, " Sed luceant, inquit (nempe
Christus) opera vestra. At nunc lucent tabernae et
januae nostrae : plures jam invenies fores sine lucernis
et laureis quam Christianorum."

The Jews probably took their custom of burning
lamps at their feasts from the Egyptians. Herodotus,

280 LAMP.... ..LEAVES.

b. 11, tells us, there was an annual sacrifice at Lais,
known by the name of the feast of lamps.- The
Chinese have a similar festival at the present day*

Persius, in the passage before referred to, must not
be understood to speak of the feast of lamps among
the Jews. That festival was instituted by Judas, and
was held annually on the 25th of the month Chislen.
See Josephus, and Picart des Ceremonies des Juifs.

In Gen. xv. 17, the words " burning lamp," mean
a flame or cone of fire, in the midst of the smoky
cloud, the emblem of the Divine presence as at Sinai,
Exod. xix. 18 ; so in Exod. xx< 1 8> lepidim are flames
or flashes of fire.

When lamp is used to signify successor, as in that
passage, " I have ordained a lamp for mine anointed,"
Ps. exxxii. 1 7, the metaphor is taken from the light
being continually kept in by fresh supplies succes-
sively. Theocritus uses the same expression, Idyll. 27-
- Luke xii. 35, " And your lamps burning,** a phrase
to denote constant vigilance.

LEAVES of a tree, are explained by the Interpre-
ters^ in eh. 15, of the common sort of men, tn&^enren,
as trees themselves are the symbols of the higher or-
ders, or nobles, Su&Qen and fuyircnut.

Leaves that are strong and green, denote men of
sound judgment ; those that are weak and withered,
men of a weak judgment, and depraved manner.

Sometimes leaves are explained of clothes, on ac-
count of the analogy, since both serve for a covering.

Homer beautifully compares the human race to
leaves, H. 6, 146 :

" Like leaves on trees the race of man is found,
Now green in youth, now withering on the ground : -

LEAVES LEOPARD. 281

Another race the following spring supplies,

They fall successive, and successive rise.

So generations in their course decay,.

So flourish these, when those are past away. POPE.

Job, deprecating the divine inflictions, uses the
same simile, xiii. 25,

" "Wilt thou break a leaf driven to and fro ?
Wilt thou pursue the dry stubble ?"

And Isaiah Ixiv. 6,

" We fade like a leaf all of us,
And our sins like the wind carry us away."

Rev. xxii. 2, f The leaves of the tree (of life) were
for the healing of the nations ;" (see Ezek. xlvii. 12.)
i. e. they have a sovereign virtue against all sorts of
indisposition ; they are calculated to promote immor-
tality.

LEOPARD. The symbolic character of the Leo-
pard rests chiefly upon three of his distinguishing
qualities, viz.

1. Cruelty, as referred to in Isa. xi. 6 ; Jer. v. 6 ;-
Hosea xiii. 7-

2. Swiftness. See Hab. i. 8.

3. Variety of skin. See Jer. xiii. 23.

Hence, in Hieroglyphic language, a Leopard re-
presents, An implacable enemy a crafty and per-
nicious person a powerful and fraudulent enemy.

And the variety of his spots denotes wickedness
and deceit.

See Artemidorus and the Oneirocritics.

In Jerera. v. 6, the wild beasts there spoken of
are the King of Babylon and his troops.

In Isa. xi. 6, the meaning plainly is, that men of
a fierce untractable disposition shall, in the gospel

282 -LEOPARD.

kingdom, associate peaceably with those -of au oppo-
site temper, being subdued by divine influence.

The passage in Jer. xiii. 23, clearly imports, that
habits of sinning are as difficult to eradicate as it
would be to take out the natural spots of a leopard.

Dan. vii. 6, " After this I beheld, and lo another,
like a leopard, which had upon the back of it four
wings of a fowl ; the beast had also four heads ; and
dominion was given to it."

The founders of the four great monarchies are pro-
bably called Beasts, on account of the savage and
cruel measures they pursued. The person here al-
luded to is generally considered to be Alexander the
Great, and in many respects the parallel between him
and the leopard must hold. His well known reply
to one who asked him how he obtained so many sig-
nal victories, of (a&si aya&zAAo^svoj, i. e. never delay-
ing, is quite consonant with the celerity of the leo-
pard, and the method by which it leaps on its prey ;
as his daring to engage with Darius and the most
powerful princes, is illustrative of the leopard's spirit
and courage, which will rouse it to a contest with the
largest and fiercest wild beasts. The Leopard, says
Bochart, is of small stature, but of great courage, so
as not to be afraid to engage with the lion and the
largest animals. And so Alexander, a little king in
comparison, of small stature too, and with a small
army, dared to attack the king of kings, that is,
Darius, whose kingdom was extended from the JSgean
Sea to the Indies.

The leopard is said to fix his eye upon the prey,
in order to take 'the surest occasion of seizing them.
This Pliny observes, " Insidunt pardi condensa arbo.-r

LEOPARD. 283

rum, occultatique earum ramis in praetereuntia desi-
liunt." Leopards tamed and taught to hunt, are
made use of, according to Harraer, in Palestine for ,
hunting, and seize the prey with surprising agility.
When the leopard leaps he is said to throw himself
17 or 18 feet at a time :

" Non segnior extulit ilium
Saltus, et in medias jecit super anna catervas,
Quum per summa rapit celerem venabula pardum."

LUCAN, b. 6.

All this well expresses the speed of Alexander's
conquests in Persia and the Indies, which were per- .
formed in ten or twelve years' time.

The leopard is a spotted animal, and so was a pro-
per symbol of Alexander, when we consider the dif-
ferent manners of the nations which Alexander com-
manded, and by whose help he became the conqueror
of the world as well as the diversified disposition of
Alexander himself, who was sometimes merciful, and
sometimes cruel, alternately temperate and drunken,
abstemious and incontinent.

By the four wings on its back or sides seems to be
meant the union of the four Empires the Assyrian,
Median, Persian, and Grecian; or as some think,
Persia, Greece, Egypt, and India. But in this there
is much uncertainty. May we not with greater pro-
priety say, that the rapidity with which these nations
were united under Alexander is fitly denoted by the
character of wings.

After the death of Alexander, the partition of his
kingdom into four parts is probably what is meant
by the four heads of the beast. And if we reflect on
the small beginnings of this power the difficulties

284 LEOPARD.

which it surmounted and the vast strides which it
made towards universal empire, extending its con-
quests as far as the Ganges in so short a space as
twelve years (1 Mace. i. 7), we shall not be at a loss
to assign a fair interpretation for the last clause of
this verse, and to conclude that such " dominion was
the gift of God." (See Wintle on Dan.)

The " four heads" were Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysi-
machus, and Seleucus, Alexander's captains and suc-
cessors.

Ptolemy reigned over Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, Coe-
losyria, and Palestine. Cassander over Macedon,
Greece, and Epirus. Lysimachus over Thrace and
Bithynia. Seleucus over Babylon, Syria, and the
rest of the empire. This division continued for se-
veral years. See Diod. Sic. b. 20 ; Polyb. b. 5, &c.

And here I think it right to insert the valuable ob-
servations of Prideaux in reference to this subject,
part 1, b. 8, " After that, Alexander subdued the
Mardans, Arians, Drangeans, Aracausians, and several
other nations, over which he flew with victory swifter
than others can travel, often with his horse pursuing
his enemies upon the spur whole days and nights, and
sometimes making long marches for several days, one
after the other, as once he did in pursuit of Darius,
of near forty miles a day, for eleven days together ;
so that, by the speed of his marches, he came upon his
enemy before they were aware of him, and conquered
them before they could be in a posture to resist him."
Which exactly agrees with the description given of
him in the Prophecies of Daniel some ages before,
he being set forth in them under the similitude of a
panther or leopard with four wings; for he was im-

LEOPARD......L1GHT. 285

petuous and fierce in his warlike expeditions, as a
panther after his prey, and came upon his enemies
with that speed, as if he flew with a double pair of
wings. And to this purpose he is, in another part of
these prophecies, compared to a he-goat coming from
the west, with that swiftness upon the king of Media
and Persia, that he seemed as if his feet did not touch
the ground. And his actions, as well in this com-
parison as in the former, fully verified the prophecy.

Rev. xiii. 2, " And the beast which I saw was like a
leopard." This is generally considered to be the
..symbol of Rome papal, represented as a tyrannical
government, whose characters resembled those men-
tioned in Daniel's vision of the four monarchies,
namely, rapacity, swiftness, strength, and cruelty,
the leopard being the symbol of the Greeks- the
bear, of the Persians the lion, of the Babylonians.
Rome papal, or the. beast here represented, is said to
be like unto a leopard, " And his feet were as those of
a bear, and his mouth as the mouth of a lion ^'mean-
ing, that it partook of the qualities of these animals,
or rather of the nations whom they symbolized ; in
which interpretation, whatever truth there is may
easily be proved by reference to the history of the
Papacy, from its first rise to the present hour.

LIGHT, Lights or luminaries signify ruling
powers, because they show the way, and, consequent-
ly, direct and govern men in their conduct, who
otherwise would not know what to do, or whither to

gQ-
Sapor, king of Persia, writing to Constantius, call-
ed himself " the brother of the sun and moon," i. e.

286 LIGHT..;. ..LIGHTNINGS.

one who ruled the world, as well as those luminaries
do. Anim. Marc. 1. 17-

: On account of the luminaries governing the day
and night, all luminaries, in the symbolical language,
signify riding powers.

And the light itself is well employed to signify the
edicts, laws, rules, or directions that proceed from
them for the good of their subjects. Thus, of the
great King of all, the Psalmist says, Ps. cxix. 105,
" Thy word is a light unto my path ;" and Hosea
vi. 5, " Thy judgments are as the light."

In John viii. 12, Christ is called the light of the
world." And Tully calls Rome, as governing the
world (Orat. pro Sylla), "the light of the nations."
And with Philo, " instruction is the light of the
soul."

Agreeably to the notion of lights being the symbols
of good government, light also signifies protection,
deliverance, and joy.

LIGHTNINGS. On account of the fire attend-
ing their light, they are the symbols of edicts enforced
with destruction to those who oppose them, or hinder
others from giving obedience to them. Ps. cxliv. 6 ;
Zech. ix. 14 ; Ps. xviii. 14 ; Rev. iv. 5 ; xvi. 18.

Thunders and lightnings, when they proceed from
the throne of God, as in Rev. iv. 5, are fit representa-
tions of God's glorious and awful majesty ; but when
fire comes down from heaven upon the earth, it ex-
presses some judgment of God on the world, as in
Rev. xx. 9. The voices, thunders, lightnings, and
great hail, in Rev., xvi. 18-21, are interpreted ex-
pressly of an exceeding great plague, so that men
blasphemed on account of it.

LION. 287

LION. A lion is, in general, the symbol of a
king. The Mussulmans call Ali, Mahomet's son-in-
law, " The Lion of God always victorious." " To
have the head of a lion portends," says Artemidorus,
" obtaining of victory." By the head of a lion, the
Egyptians represented a vigilant person or guardian,
the lion sleeping with his eyes open.

Gen. xlix. 9, Judah is styled a lion's whelp, and is
compared to a lion and lioness couching, whom no
one dares to rouse. The warlike character and the
conquests of this tribe are here prophetically de-
scribed ; but the full force of the passage will not be
perceived, unless we know that a lion or lioness,
when lying down after satisfying its hunger, will not
attack any person. Mungo Park has recorded an in-
stance of his providential escape from a lion thus cir-
cumstanced, which he saw lying near the road, and
passed unhurt (Home's Introduction, v. ii. p. 642.)

Ezek. xix. 2, 3,

" What was thy mother ? a lioness :
She lay down among lions,
In the midst of young lions she nourish'd her whelps."

An allusion to Gen. xlix. 9> says Grotius. Judea
was among the nations like a lioness among the beasts
of the forest ; she had strength and sovereignty. The
whelp mentioned in verse 3d, means Jehoahaz, the
son of Josiah, whom Pharaoh Necho put in bonds,
and carried into Egypt, 2 Kings xxiii. 33, 34. It is
said, verse 8th, " He was taken in their pit." The
Arabs dig a pit where the lions are observed to enter,
and, covering it slightly with reeds or small branches
of trees, they frequently decoy and catch them.

288 LION.

Pliny has taken notice of the same, practice. See
Shaw's Travels.

Amos iii. 8, " The lion hath roared : who will not
fear?"

The roaring of the lion is in itself one of the most
terrible sounds in nature ; but it becomes still more
dreadful, when it is known to be a sure prelude of
destruction to whatever living creature comes in his
way. He does not usually set up his horrid roar till
he beholds his prey, and is just going to seize it. The
awful admonitions uttered by the Prophets, are as
natural a consequence of God's command, as fear is of
the lion's roaring.

" Fremitu leonis quails audito tener
Timidum juvencus applicat matri latus :
At ille ssevus, matre summota, leo
Praedam minorem morsibus vastis premens
Erangit, vehitque ; tails e nostro sinu
Te rapiet hostis." Sen. Troad. 794.

" The Lord shall roar out of Zion," Joel iii. 16.

That this expression is metaphorical, needs no re-
mark. God's being said to roar out of Zion and Je-
rusalem, intimates both the courage of the Jews fight-
ing under his protection, and the certainty of their
success.

" The heavens and the earth shall shake/'

These words are a continuation of the metaphor.
As a lion, when he roars, makes the woods or plains
to resound, and the beasts of the field to tremble ; so
God, being here compared to this fierce creature, his
voice is justly said to make .the yery heavens and
earth shake : the plain meaning of which is, all should
be thrown into the utmost consternation, like a man
seeing a roaring lion coming upon him to devour him,

LION. 289

or as if he saw the very heavens and earth themselves
moving, and in the utmost disorder.

Dan. vii. 4, " The first was like a lion, and had
eagle's wings."

The Chaldean or Babylonian empire, is here re-
presented. See Jerem. iv. 7. Its progress to what
was then deemed universal empire was rapid, and
therefore it has the wings of an eagle. See Jer. xlviii.
40 ; and Ezek. xvii. 3. It is said by Megasthenes
and Strabo, that this power advanced as far as Spain.
When its wings were plucked or torn out, that is,
when it was checked in its progress by frequent de-
feats, it became more peaceable and humane, agree-
ably to that idea of the Psalmist, ix. 20,

" Bring terror upon them, O Jehovah,

That the nations may acknowledge themselves to be but
men."

Nahum ii. 11, 12,

" Where is the habitation of the devouring lions ?
And that which was the feeding-place of the young lions ?
Whither the devouring lion and the lioness went,
And the whelp of the devouring lion ; and none made them
afraid," &c. ......

The allegory, as Newcome remarks, is beyond mea-
sure beautiful. Where are the inhabitants of Nine-
veh, who were .strong and rapacious like lions ? See
the intrepidity of the lion well illustrated by Bochart,
Hieroz. 1. 3, c. 2. Both Aristotle and JSlian say that
he never flies, but retires slowly. So also Homer de-
scribes him, H. 17, 108,

" So from the fold the unwilling lion parts,
Forc'd by loud clamours, and a storm of darts.
He flies indeed, but threatens as he flies,
With heart indignant, and retorted eyes."

See also Prov. xkviii. 1 ; and xxx. 30.

T

290 LION.

Isaiah xxix. 1, Woe to the lion of God, the city
where David dwelt."

Jerusalem is here denoted, and the terms used ap-
pear to signify the strength of the place, by which it
.was enabled to resist and overcome all its enemies.

Jerem. iv. 7> " The lion is come up from his
thicket."

By this is undoubtedly meant Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon. See ch. 1. 17 ; and v. 6, where the
same person is meant.

2 Tim. iv. 17 "I was delivered out of the mouth
of the lion."

The general opinion is, that Nero is here meant,
or rather his prefect, Mlius Ceesarianus, to whom
Nero committed the government of the city in his
absence, with power to put whomsoever he pleased to
death. So, when Tiberius died, Marsyas said to
Agrippa, " The lion is dead." And so speaks Esther
of Artaxerxes, " Put a word into my mouth before
the lion," Esther xiv. 13.

That the same symbol should sometimes be applied
to opposite characters, is no way surprising nor in-
consistent, since different qualities may reside in the
symbol, of which; the good may be referred to one,
the bad to another. Thus, in the lion reside courage,
and victory over antagonists. Li these respects it
may be, and is employed, as a symbol of Jesus Christ,
who is called the Lion of the tribe of Judah, Rev. v.
5 ; whose emblem the lion was, see Gen. xlix. 9 ; the
whole Jewish polity being called a lion, on account
of the singular firmness and stability of its govern-
ment, which lasted till the time of Christ, and was
merged in him, who from that time became eminently

LION. LOCUST. 291

the Lion of the tribe of Judah. The figure of a lion
was carried on its standard, according to Mede and
others, on which are said to have been inscribed these
words :

" Arise, O Jehovah, let thine enemies be scattered,
And let all them that hate thee flee before thee."

See Glassius, Philol. Sacra, p. 750.

In the lion reside also fierceness and rapacity. In
this point of view, it is used as a fit figure for Satan,
1 Peter v. 8 ; for Nero, as above, and generally for
wicked and rapacious conquerors and tyrants, as in
many passages of Scripture, some of which have been
already quoted.

The same takes place in regard to the unicorn,
which, in Ps. xcii. 10, is applied to the pious ; while,
in Ps. xxii. 21, it seems to be meant of the ungodly:
The term leaven, also, is in one place used to denote
the sound doctrine of the kingdom of heaven ; in an-
other; the false doctrine of the Pharisees. - See Matt.
xiii. 33 ; and xvi. 6.

LOCUST. In the sacred writings, the locust is
everywhere the symbol of hostile armies ; for these
insects always appear in large companies or troops,
and, from their destructive qualities, are considered
as enemies. See Jerem. xlvi. 23,

" Cut down her forest (i. e. her people or cities), saith Jehovah,
That it may not be found on searching ;
Although they surpass the locusts in multitude,
And they are without number."

Nahum iii. 1 5,

" There shall the fire devour thee :
The sword shall cut thee off; it shall devour thee as the

locust.

Increase thyself as the locust,
Increase thyself as the numerous locust."

292 LOCUST.

,. Nahum iii. 17, .

" Thy crown'd princes are as the numerous locust,
And thy captains as the grasshoppers ;

Which encamp in the fences in the cold day,
But, when the sun ariseth, they depart,
And their place is not known where they are.'*

See also Deut. xxviii. 38, 42 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 46 ;
Amos vii. 1.

God made use of them as a hostile army, to exe-
cute his judgments ; hence the first great plague on
Egypt arose from their visitation, Exod. ch. x. There
they are represented as coming from the East, i. e.
from Arabia, the neighbouring country. And in
Judges vi. 3-6, and ch. vii. 1 2, the " children of the
East," meaning the Arabians, are compared to locusts
for multitude, and as committing the same damage.
See also 1 Kings iv. 30, where Solomon's wisdom is
said to have excelled the wisdom of all " the children
of the East," and all the wisdom of Egypt.

See also the invasion of the locusts described by
Joel, in the first two chapters of his prophecy, from
which place, and from that in Exodus, ch. x., the ex-
pressions in Rev. ch. ix., are plainly borrowed.

The Eastern interpreters of dreams explain the ap-
pearance of locusts in a similar manner. " The lo-
cust," say they, " generally refers to a multitude of
enemies. They march, by divine command, like an
army for the destruction of kingdoms. If any king
or potentate shall dream of locusts coming to any
country, in that place he may expect a multitude of
powerful enemies." And Rabbi Tanchura, on Joel
i. 4-6, says, " It is no way unreasonable to affirm,
that in the things which are related concerning -the
nature of locusts and their actions, there is a parabo-

LOCUST. 293

lie expression of the invasion of enemies, their multi-
tude, and the devastation and ruin of that country."
Josephus, de Bello Jud. 1. 5, c. 7> observes, in like
manner, " As after locusts we see the woods stripped
of their leaves, soj in the rear of Simon's army, no-
thing but desolation remained."

Locusts are said to be produced in the earth.
Pliny says, " Locustae nascuntur in rimosis locis."
And this insect has its name in Hebrew from geb,
goub, or geba, which signifies a pit, ditch, or pool.
The mystic locusts in the Apocalypse are hence said
to have proceeded from the pit or abyss. But the
locusts of the Apocalypse seem to have some affinity
to another creature, viz. the scorpion, and therefore
may be termed scorpion-locusts ; and their pain or
torment is compared to that of a scorpion, when he
strikes a man.

The teeth of the locust are very strong and sharp,
as those of a lion are. Pliny, as cited by Bochart,
writes of the locusts, that they bite through every
thing, and even the doors of houses. So that Jerome
upon the place very justly cries out, " What is more
innumerable or stronger than the locusts, which no
human industry can resist." The same comparison
we have in Rev. ix. 8, " Their teeth were as the
teeth of lions."

The locust has a head very much resembling that
of a horse ; hence the Italians call them cavelette, i. e.
little horses. Joel notices this, ch. ii. 4 ; and St John
makes the same comparison, Rev. ix. 7- The Ara-
bians describe them in the same manner : they say,
" The appearance of horses adorns their heads and
countenance." But both Joel and St John may be

294 LOCUST.

considered, not so much to refer to the natural ap-
pearance, as to the properties of the insect ; namely,
its fierceness and swift motion. Thus, the Apostle
says, not merely horses, but horses " prepared unto
battle," furious and impatient for the war. Like Vir-'
gil's description :

" Nee vanos horret strepitus.
Stare loco nescit, micat auribus, et tremit artus,
Collectum que premens volvit sub naribus ignem."

Georg. 3.

Their " wings" also are mentioned as making a
noise. Bochart says, that they may be heard at six
miles distance, and that when they are eating the
fruits of the earth, the sound of them is like that of a
flame driven by the wind. Joel likens it to the noise
of chariots on the tops of the mountains, ch. ii. 5 ;
and St John uses nearly the same simile, " The
sound of their wings was as the sound of chariots of
many horses running to battle."

The natural locust has a very hard skin, in appear-
ance like scales or armour. Hence Claudian thus
describes them, Epigr. 33,

: Cognatus dorso durescit amictus ;

Armavit natura cutem," &c.

Hence Joel says, ch. ii. 8, " When they fall upon the
sword, they shall not be wounded." And the Apo-
calyptic locusts are described " as having breastplates
like breastplates of iron."

,As these symbolical locusts hurt Men, Rev. ix. 4,
which the natural locusts do not, further than by in-
juring vegetation, we are at once led to infer, that
they are to be understood of a class of persons, who

LOCUST. 295

resemble that insect only in some of its more remark-
able qualities ; such as number, noxiousness, and ca-
pacity of devastation, especially when they are por-
trayed as having (v. 7) " human faces ;" and (v. 8)
" hair like women," " golden coronets," or turbans
and the like ; all which could only be affirmed of
those whom the locust symbolizes.

The time of their continuance is said to be five
months, the usual time of the appearance of these in-
sects, which is only in four or five months of the year.
They begin to appear in spring, about a month after
the Equinox, and are only seen at most during part
of April, May, June, July, and August, and part of
September. These locusts were accounted the most
dreadful plague ; insomuch that those who were in-
strumental in delivering any nation from them, were
repaid with divine honours. Thus, the CEteans named
Hercules Cornopion, from Cornops, a locust, and
worshipped him under that character, because he
drove away the locusts from them.

Almost all interpreters agree, that by the locusts in
the Apocalypse, the Saracens are meant, and the rise
of the Mahometan imposture and power, about the
year 606. Mede, Daubuz, Lowman, and Bishop
Newton, all agree on this subject ; and, indeed, the
coincidence is so striking between the prophetic de-
scription and the actual history, there is no resisting
the evidence of it. But without determining posi-
tively in a matter, respecting which so many have
erred, it may be sufficient to remark, that could this
point, of the application of the locusts to the Sara-
cens, be well and satisfactorily ascertained, it would

296 LOCUST.

be of great importance, inasmuch as we should then
have a landmark in the region of prophecy, from
whence we could look either backward into the past,
or prospectively into the future, as from a fixed date
or era, so as to give greater confidence in the inter-
pretation of the other mystic visions of the Apoca-
lypse.

The points of coincidence may be seen well stated
by Bishop Newton, and by Mede, but they would be
too long for this place.

If, by the coronets or turbans, we are to understand
the ensigns of regal power, we may with Mede sup-
pose them to refer to the numerous nations subdued
by the victories of the Saracens in an incredibly short
space of time. For, in the space of eighty or ninety
years, they had overrun and subjected Palestine,
Syria, Armenia, nearly all the Lesser Asia, Persia,
India, Egypt, Numidia, all Barbary as far as the river
Niger, Portugal and Spain. They afterwards added
a great part of Italy, Sicily, Candia, Cyprus, and other
islands of the Mediterranean sea. So that they might
well be said to be crowned locusts, from the multi-
tude of kingdoms they subdued.

They are said to continue five months ; and as five
months of thirty days make 150 days, reckoning each
day for a year, so their continuance or duration was
to be 150 years, which, if computed from A.D. 632,
the year of Mahomet's death, would bring the period
down to 782. But Mede reckons it from A.D. 830
to 980 ; and Daubuz, from 612 to 762, each assign-
ing reasons for his mode of computation, for which
see their works.

LOVE. .....MANNA. 297

LOVE. To love, in Scripture, signifies to adhere
or cleave to, as in Gen. xxxiv. 3, " His soul cleaved
unto Dinah, and he loved the damsel."

And so in Deut. xi. 12 ; xxx. 20.

On the contrary, to hate is to forsake. Thus, in
Rom. xii. 9> " Abhor that which is evil, and cleave
to that which is good."

fn Isa. Ix. 15, forsaken and hated are put as syno-
nymous.

Thus, a man must hate his father for the sake of
Christ ; i. e. must forsake or leave him, to follow and
obey Christ, when it stands in competition.

Thus God hated Esau, that is, passed by him, when
he preferred before him his younger brother Jacob, in
entitling Jacob to greater worldly privileges, and en-
tering into a closer covenant with him. See Mai. i.
2, 3. The meaning is, that God chose rather to
make the posterity of Jacob a greater nation than the
posterity of Esau. For the words Jacob and Esau
are not to be understood of their persons, but of
their offspring, as is evident from what was said of
them by God to their mother, before they loere born,
Gen. xxv. 23. " Two nations are in thy womb,
(i. e. the Edomites and the Jews,) and two manner of
people shall be separated from thy bowels ; and the
one people shall be stronger than the other ; and the
elder shall serve the younger."

MANNA. The miraculous food with which God
fed his people Israel during forty years in the wilder-
ness.

In Ps. Ixxviii. 25, it is called angel's food in our
version ; but this is absurd. The word abirim there
signifies strong ones, and by Durell is translated oxen,

u

298 - MANNA.

as in Ps. xxii. 12 ; 1. 13 ; Ixviii. 30 j Isa. xxxiv. 7 ;
Jer. 1. 1 1. He therefore renders it thus :

" Every one ate the flesh of oxen,
He sent them venison (or victuals) in plenty."

But Parkhurst, with more propriety, renders it " bread
of the strong ones ;" meaning by Tkhat the material
heavens, for in the preceding sentence it is called
" corn of the heavens." See his note on Abir, Heb.
Lex. p. 4.

Manna is the emblem or symbol of immortality,
Rev. ii. 17, " I will give him to eat of the hidden
manna ;" i. e. the true bread of God, which came
down from heaven, referring to the words of Christ,
in John vi. 51, a much greater instance of God's fa-
vour, than feeding the Israelites with manna in the
wilderness. It is called hidden, or laid up, in allu-
sion to that which was laid up in a golden vessel in
the Holy of Holies of the tabernacle. Comp. Exod.
xvi. 33, 34, and Heb. ix. 4.

It is in a subordinate sense only, that what dropped
from the clouds, and was sent for the nourishment of
the body, still mortal, could be called the " bread of
heaven," being but a type of that which hath de-
scended from the heaven of heavens, for nourishing
the immortal soul unto eternal life, and which is there-
fore, in the sublimest sense, the bread of heaven. The
original manna was corruptible, and they who ate
thereof died; but those who partake of this shall
never hunger, but shall live for ever. The immor-
tality which it procures, transcends all imagination.

In Luke xiv. 15, a person is recorded as saying,
" Blessed is he that shall eat bread in the kingdom
of God ;" probably in allusion to the manna. To eat

MANNA:.. ...MAN OP SIN, &c. 299

bread IB a well-known Hebrew idiom for to share in
a repast, whether it be at a common, meal, or at a
sumptuous feast.

MAN of SIN SON of PERDITION LAW-
LESS ONE. 2 Thess. ii. 3, &c.

The figurative description of an eminently impious
and wicked power, whose rise was to be contempo-
rary with the "Apostasy," or general defection from
God, and from genuine Christianity. He is called
the man of sin, as being eminently wicked. The son
of perdition, as being destined to certain destruction.
The lawless one, as setting himself up above all law,
human and divine.

He is said to oppose God, as being peculiarly an
adversary to truth and righteousness. And to exalt
himself above God, as being guilty of the most im-
pious arrogance, as proudly raising himself above all
institutions of religious worship, by assuming to alter
and set aside all the divine appointments of religion
and worship.

He is said to sit in the temple of God, as if he
were God ; i. e. he shall seize the primacy or sove-
reignty of the churches of Christ, and usurp the au-
thority of the king of Zion. But properly, instead
of sit, it should be he seateth himself, denoting his in-
solent and violent intrusion of himself into God's
church as lawgiver and ruler.

Shewing himself, or rather " publicly declaring
himself" that he is a God ; i. e. impiously assuming
divine powers and privileges, and arrogating that
submission and obedience in matters pertaining to
the conscience, which are due only to God.

An event, or order of things, is said to restrain his

300 MAN; OF SIN, &c.

appearance, and he could not be revealed till that was
removed. All the Fathers considered this to mean
the imperial power of Rome, which then maintained
its 'own sovereignty, and prevented the usurpation
alluded to. See Tertullian's Apology, and his treatise
on the Resurrection, where he says, " until lie be taken
out of the way, who ? but the Roman empire, which
being dispersed into ten kings, shall introduce Anti-
christ," ch. xxiv. .

The poets and Roman writers in general having
flattered the Caesars with the eternal duration of their
empire see Virgil, Mn. 1, 1. 281, &c., and given to
Rome the title of the eternal city, it would not have
been safe for Paul to have spoken more openly on
this subject, whatever he might say to the Thessa-
lonians in private, in explanation of his meaning.
And therefore he says, " Ye know what withholds,"
&c. '

This "mystery of iniquity,". or concealed wicked-
ness, was even then in operation, and was exerting it-
self covertly, till he who restrained it, "the Imperial
Government," was taken out of the way. The ex-
pression " taken out of the way," perhaps importing
the violent deaths by which many of the Roman em-
perors perished, and the dreadful struggles and con-
vulsions which preceded the dissolution of the empire
itself.

It is further said, that the Lord will consume ; i. e.
gradually destroy this lawless one, or usurping and
tyrannical power, by the spirit or breath of his mouth ;
i.e. by the word of his gospel, and the prevalence of
the doctrine of Christ, which should supersede the
errors, and expose the impostures, of Antichrist,.

MAN OF SIN, &c. 301

And destroy .him, or render ineffectual, by the
brightness of his coming ; i. e. by breaking down his
authority, reducing his influence, and bringing him
to a state of inactivity and impotence.

The coming of the lawless one is described to be
according to the operation of Satan ; i. e. invisibly
and imperceptibly yet effectually by the use of false
miracles, specious pretences, counterfeit signs, and all
the apparatus of imposture, or, as Paul expresses it,
with every hind of unrighteous deception : meaning,
that he would scruple no arts or delusions, that might
support and perpetuate his own usurpation.

Those who are deceived by him, are said to be
" those that perish, because they received not the love
of the truth, that they might be saved." And, there-
fore, God abandoned them to strong delusion, so as
to give credit to a lie. And having wilfully banished
the truth from their minds, they rendered themselves
liable to the righteous condemnation of God, as per-
sons who had made iniquity their choice, and who
preferred error to truth, as being most favourable to
the indulgence of their criminal passions.
- No man of understanding can be at a loss for the
right application of this, portion of Scripture, that it
cannot reasonably be expounded of one or two par-
ticular deceivers, who arose, appeared, and perished.
But of a power of great extent and of considerable
duration, whose rise was gradual, his assumption of
sovereignty progressive, and whose downfall may oc-
cupy a period proportioned to his rise. But see
Whitby, Macknight, and Chandler in particular, and
the commentators in general.

302 MARRIAGE.

MARRIAGE^ is symbolically used to signify a
state, and reason or cause of great joy and happiness.
A man is not perfect till marriage, there is something
till then wanting to make him complete in his cir-
cumstances, according to the divine institution, Gen.

^ f\ - .

11. 18.

Therefore marriage by the Greeks was called rsAoc,
perfection. And a bride, in Hebrew, is called {"1*13,
cere, that is, a perfect owe, from cere, to perfect or
consummate.

Wife, according to the Indian Interpreter, ch. 123,
is the symbol of the power and authority of her hus-
band; and as he dreams of seeing her well or ill
dressed, so he shall meet with joy or affliction.

The church of God, under the Old Testament, is
sometimes spoken of as the spouse of God, in terms
borrowed from the marriage covenant. She is the
barren woman that did not bear, and was desolate;
she, is exhorted to rejoice, in Isa. liv. 1-6, on the re-
conciliation of her husband, and on the accession of
the Gentiles to her family.

The same union is 7 hinted at by the Apostle, in
writing to the Ephesians, ch. v. 32, as subsisting be-
tween Christ and the church.

See also Isa. Ixii. 5, and 2 Cor. ii. 2, where Paul
says, ?* For I have espoused you to one husband, that
I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ/'

In the visions of John, a period is spoken of, when
the marriage of the Lamb is come, and his bride hath
made herself ready, Rev. xix. 7. As marriages were
used to be celebrated with great joy, the marriage of
the Lamb with his church is a fit emblem to shew the
state of prosperity and happiness to which God will

MARRIAGE......MARSHES......MEASURE. 303

raise it, after all its sufferings for the sake of truth
and righteousness.

MARSHES. There is not much said of these in
the Scriptures, but they appear to be considered as
the emblems of barrenness. They are in their own
nature unfertile and insalubrious, resembling the Dead
Sea, or Sea of Sodom, that dismal example of divine
justice ; and in that sense may be viewed as repre-
senting those who, notwithstanding the motions of
God's Spirit, and the means used for their improve-
ment, are utterly unproductive of good.

In Ezek. 3dvii. 11, it is said, " As for the marshes
and pits, they shall not . be healed ;" i. e. they shall
remain filled with salt water, &c. The allegorical
sense is, that some shall reject the Gospel, and some
shall receive it without obeying it.

Italy and Spain, in Europe, and many other coun-
tries throughout the world, may be viewed as in this
marshy state, a state of obduracy, error, and spiritual
death. See Vitringa, de Paludibus.

MEASURE. To measure and to divide are the
same ; and both signify to go about to take posses-
sion, after the division. Hence a lot, or division, or
inheritance, are all one; because the Israelites got
possession of the promised land by division, measure,
and lot.

And to divide the spoil, is to get a great booty or
victory, because division of the spoils is a consequence
of the other. See Numb. xxiv. 17 ; xxxiii. 54; Josh,
i. 16 ; xiii. 6 ; Isa. ix. 3 ; liii- 12.

To mete out is the same. Thus Ps. Ix.' 5, "I will
divide Sichem, and mete out the valley of Succoth,"

304 MEASURE... ...MILK AND HtiNEY. "

signifies an entire possession after a victory, which
God had promised to David. -

So in Isa. xviii. 2, a nation that is -meted out and
trodden down, is a nation overcome by its enemies,
and quite subdued ; so that its possessions are divided
and possessed by the conquerors. -

So when, in Josh. xxiv. 3, God says, " I have di-
vided unto you by lot those nations that remain,"
what is this but to say, that God had put them in
possession of their lands ? So in Zech. ii. 2, to mea-
sure Jerusalem, is again to take possession- of it, to
rebuild it ; or at least to repair that, and rebuild the
temple. See also Amos vii. 17-

The same notion is also in the heathen authors.
Thus in Horace, immetatajugera, lands unmeasured,
1. 3, od. 24, v. 1 2, signify, not possessed by any pro-
priety to them, but common ; whence the fruits of
suchiands are called by the poet, liberee, free to any
one to take. See also Virgil, Geor. 1. 1, v. 126, 127.

MILK AND HONEY, the emblems of fertility.

Bochart, Hierozi p. 2, 1. 4, c. 12, observes, that this
phrase occurs about twenty times in the Scriptures,
and that it is an image frequently used in the clas-
sics, as in Euripides, Bacch. 142, thus translated by
Wodhull:

" Rills of milk, and rills of wine,

Moisten the enchanted land,
For him the bee's nectareous treasure stream,
And Syrian frankincense perfumes his.sTirine."

Josephus represents .Galilee as wholly 'under cul-
ture, and everywhere fruitful ; as throughout abound-
ing in pastures, planted with all kinds .of trees, and
inciting, by the good quality of the land, those who

MEASURE .MOON. 305

are least disposed to the labour of tillage. See also
Shaw's Travels, and MaundrelTs.

Milk sometimes denotes the unadulterated word of
God, as in 1 Peter ii. 2, compared with Isa. Iv. 1.

It also signifies the elementary parts, or rudiments
of the Christian doctrine, 1 Cor. iii. 2 ; Heb. v. 12,
13.

MOON. The moon has generally been considered
by divines to be a symbol of the church of God, but
on what grounds, it is difficult to discover. It would
seem as if the notion had been taken up principally
on the supposition that Solomon's Song has a secon-
dary or mystical sense, representing the union of
Christ with the church, though neither the name of
God nor of Christ is once mentioned in it, nor is it
ever quoted, or even alluded to, in the New Testa-
ment. In Cant. vi. 10, the bride is said to be " fair
as the moon;" but that the church is that bride, is
nowhere affirmed. Were it otherwise, the sun also
might be supposed to be an emblem of the church,
for the 'Same bride is, in the same verse, said to be
" clear as the sun." Even were it so, the passage
amounts to no more than a simple comparison, " fair
as the moon ;" in the same manner as Asahel " was
light of foot as a roe," 2 Sam. ii. 18. Some divines,
however, determined to find the church everywhere,
fix on this passage among others, and inform us,
that the church is so called, because of her brightness,
which she derives from Christ, " the Sun of Right-
eousness" as the moon does her light from the natu-
ral sun; and to intimate, that the church, like the
moon, may have her eclipses, and be in darkness for
a time- But if the ivoman mentioned in Rev. xii. 1,

x

306 MOON.

be intended to represent the church, which is the opi-
nion of most interpreters, then she is described as
having the moon under her feet, which, in other
words, would be treading upon herself, a picture not
very natural.

The Fathers first, led the way to the interpretation
of the moon as a symbol of the church, as has been
proved from their writings by several authors.

The moon has also been considered to be the em-
blem of the human judgment or intellect, in Eccles.
xii. 2, but erroneously ; for Solomon is there merely
describing the general condition of old age, under the
figure of a climate where the sun seldom appears,
where the sky is overspread with clouds, and heavy
rains are frequent.

As a proof how easily men of fertile imaginations
can find a resemblance anywhere, I may be allowed
to quote the following from a Danish author. " The
moon," says he, " is the symbol of the church ; for,

" 1. The moon is raised above the earth, and the
church hath her citizenship in heaven, Phil. iii. 20.

" 2. The moon is a dark body in itself, and bor-
rows its light from the sun; in like manner, the
church has no light but what she receives from the
Saviour.

" 3. The nearer the moon is to the sun, the less
brilliant she appears ; so the more the rays of the di-
vine light are thrown upon the church, the more her
misery and her poverty are discovered.

" 4. The moon is continually revolving, and is
called by the poets ' the wandering moon/ luna vaga;
so the church militant is a pilgrim and stranger, and
has no abiding place here.

, . . . MOON. 307

5.-The moon has her different phases or aspects,
waxing and waning in turn ; so the church increases
in times of peace, and decreases in seasons of perse-
cution, in numbers and stability, while her purity and
soundness are reversely affected."

And so forth; for the grounds of comparison are
multiplied.

If it be asked, of what, then, is the moon symboli-
cal ? the answer is, the sun, moon, and stars, denote
different degrees of rank, power, and authority, in a
family or state. Thus, in Joseph's dream, the sun
represented Jacob the head, the moon his wife, as the
next in order, and the stars his sons. When spoken
of a kingdom, the sun is the symbol of the king him-
self, and the moon of the next to him in power, whe-
ther it be the queen, the prince-royal, or the prime
minister. If kings are sometimes called stars, like
the king of Babylon (Isaiah xiv. 17) 5 it is when they
are not compared with their own nobles or princes,
but with other kings.

In Rev. viii. 12, it is said, " the third part of the
moon was smitten."

In the figurative language, the darkening of any of
the heavenly bodies denotes a defect in government,
a downfall of power, a revolt, or political extinction.
And if the Pagan Roman empire be here meant, then
it is a third portion of the primary powers denoted
by the sun, and of the secondary powers signified by
the moon, that is to be extinguished. See Jer. xiii.
16 ; Isa. -xiii. 10, 11 ; Ezek. xxxii. 7, 8. This is sup-
posed to have been fulfilled between the years 536
and 556, when Belisarius and the Goths alternately

308 MOON,.....MOTHER.

besieged and took Rome, and reduced it to a- mere
duchy.

Rev. xii. 1, "A Woman clothed with the sun, and
the moon under her feet."

This is understood to be a symbolical representa-
tion of the church, clothed with sunbeams, expressive
of high honour and dignity ; and standing on the
moon, as being above the low condition of this sub-
lunary world.

MOTHER. Father and mother are words which,
in all languages, may figuratively signify author or
producer of a thing.

A city which has great dominions under it, and
consequently several other cities, is frequently called
a mother, in respect of those cities, which are there-
fore, by analogy, her daughters. See Ezek. xxiii. ;
Hosea ii. 2, 5 ; iv. 5 ; Isa. 1. 1.

A city may be called a mother, in respect of the
inhabitants, as in Isa. xlix. 23, and therefore, in the
symbolical language, mother is explained of the pa-
tria, or country, or city. , See Suetonius in Jul. Gees.
7 ; and Artemidorus, 1. 2, c. 82.

See 2 Sam. xx. 19 ; Josh. xvii. 16 ; Num. xxi. 25 ;
Judges xi. 26, &c.

The name is sometimes transferred to signify the
New Testament church, as in Gal. iv. 26, which
should have been rendered, " But the Jerusalem,
which is from above, represents, or corresponds to,
the free woman, who is the mother of ns all," i. e. of
all Christians; according to the allegory, in which
the bondwoman answers to the Jews, the natural de-
scendants of Abraham, whose capital is Jerusalem on
this earth.

MOTHER......MOUNTAIN. 309

In Nairam iii. 8, where populous No or No Am-
mon is mentioned, the inhabitants are called, in ver.
10, her young children. Some have supposed No to
mean Alexandria, the great emporium of Egypt ; and
the Chaldee and Vulgate have rendered accordingly.
But Alexandria was not built at the time when Jere-
miah prophesied ; and it does not appear that there
had been before any considerable city, at least stand-
ing on the spot, which the founder made the object
of his choice. No was more probably Thebes, which
was called Diospolis, on account of the temple of Ju-
piter Ammon, who was worshipped there in a dis-
tinguished manner.

Rev. xvii. 5, " The mother of harlots and abomi-
nations of the earth ;" i. e. a chief promoter of idola-
try and superstition, by whose authority it was pro-
pagated among the nations.

Ezek. xvi. 4, " Thy father was an Amorite, and
thy mother an Hittite ;" i. e. their degenerate and ido-r
latrous conduct was suitable to such a descent. John
viii. 44. It is the language of indignation and re-
proof, like

" Duris genuit te cautibus horrens Caucasus."

J&s. 4. 366.

See Newcome inloc.

Ezek. xi. 21, " The parting of the way, at the head
of two ways," is, in Hebrew, the mother, because out
of it, these two ways arise as daughters.

On our Lord's words in Matt. xii. 48, " Who is my
mother?" see Erasmus's excellent paraphrase.

MOUNTAIN. The governing part of the politi-
cal world appears under symbols of different species,

310 MOUNTAIN.

being variously represented, according to the various
kinds of allegories.

If the allegory be fetched from the heavens, then
the luminaries denote the governing part; if from
an animal, the head or horns; if from the earth, a
mountain or fortress ; and in this case the capital city
or residence of the governor, is taken for the supreme,
by which it happens that these mutually illustrate
each other.

So a capital city is the head of the political body ;
the head of an ox is the fortress of the animal ; moun-
tains are the natural fortresses of the earth, and there-
fore a fortress or capital city, though set in a plain
level ground, may be called a mountain.

Thus head, mountain, hill, city, horn, and king, are
in a manner synonymous terms to signify a kingdom,
or monarchy, or republic, united under one govern-
ment, only with this difference, that it is to be under-
stood in different respects ; for the head represents it
in respect of the capital city ; mountain or hill in re-
spect of the strength of the metropolis, which gives
law to, or is above, and commands the adjacent terri-
tories, and the like.

Thus concerning the Kingdom of the' Messiah,
Isaiah says, ch. ii. 2,

" It shall come to pass in the latter days,
The mountain of the house of Jehovah shall be established

on the top of the mountains,
And it shall be exalted above the hills,
And all nations shall flow unto it."

-, .

And ch. xi. 9> " They shall not hurt nor destroy in
all my holy mountain," that is, in all the Kingdom of
the Messiah, which shall then reach all over the world,

MOUNTAIN. 311

for it follows, the earth shall be full of the know-
ledge of the Lord."

So the whole Assyrian Monarchy, or Babylon, for
all its dominions is called a mountain in Zech. iv. 7,
and Jer. li. 25, in which last place the Targum has a
fortress ; just as Virgil in his Jfoeid. 1. 6, v. 783, calls
the seven hills of Rome, arces or fortresses, though
there was but one, the Capitol ; " Septemque una sibi
muro circumdabit arces."

Thus also in Dan. ii. 35, " The stone that smote
the image, became a great mountain, and filled the
whole earth," that is, the Kingdom of the Messiah
having destroyed the four monarchies, became an
universal monarchy, as it is plainly made out in v 44,
45.

In this view, then, a mountain is the symbol of a
kingdom, or of a capital city with its dominions, or
of a king, which is the same;

Mountains are frequently used to signify all places
of strength of what kind soever, and to whatsoever
.use applied; mountains being difficult of access to an
enemy, and overawing and commanding the country
round about, being properly qualified, both to secure
what is on them, and to protect and govern what is
about them. See Jer. iii. 23.

Among the heathens, persons of great note and
eminence were buried in or under mountains ; tombs
were erected over them in honour of their memory ;
and by degrees their souls became the objects of
worship.

This gave rise to a custom *of building temples and
places of worship upon mountains. And though these
temples were not always, strictly speaking, the very
monuments of the heroes deceased, yet the bare in-

312 MOUNTAIN.

vocation was supposed to call the soul thither, and to
make the very place a sepulchral monument, as Tur-
nebus proves from Virgil, Mn. 1. 3, v. 67, and 1. 6,
v. 505. And therefore Servius on Virgil's JSneid,
1. 3, p. 701, observes, that human souls are by sacri-
fice turned into, deities. For which see Lycophron's
Cassandra, v. 927, 1123, and from v. 1126 to 1140.

The said temples were also built like forts or towers,
as appears from Judges ix. .46, 48, 49, where the
temple of the God Berith is called in the original,
" The tower of the house, or the tower, the house of
the god Berith."

They were likewise places of asylum, and beyond
all, were looked upon as the fortresses and defenders
of the worshippers, by reason of the presence of the
false deities, and of the relics of deceased men kept
therein within the sanctuaries.

Thus in Euripides we find, (Heracl. v. 1030, &c.)
that the heroes in their tombs were esteemed as sa-
viours and defenders of the people.

Tully, (de Nat. Deor. 1. 1. fin.) ; Clemens Alexan-
drinus, (Protrep. p. 13) ; Arnobius (adv. Gentes, 1. 6),
and Lactantius (de f. Rel. 1. e. 15), give examples o'f
dead men worshipped, upon the supposition that the
presence of their relics fixed the demon to the place,
and protected those for whom they had a kindness
when alive.

Hence the Spartans in distress were by an oracle
directed to get the bones of Orestes ; and the Athe-
nians in the like case were commanded to find the bones
of Theseus, (Herod. 1. 671 Pausan. Lacon. p. 84.)

Pausanias having observed, that the bones of Aristo-
menes, the Messenian hero, were brought to the new
Messene, and there gave out ostenta, prodigies, gives a

MOUNTAIN. 313

reason 'for it, ; brought from the immortality of the
soul, by which he supposes, that souls in the separate
state keep still their thoughts and affections as before,
and by consequence assist their votaries in suitable
enterprises, on which account their relics were thought
to do wopders.

So the shield of that hero was thought to have
helped the Theban army against the Lacedemonians.

This notion may be traced up as high as Hesiod,
Op. 1. 1. v. 121. It was the foundation of all idolatry,
and was improved by the supposition that without the
relics, as was before observed, the invocation with
sacrifices might turn human souls into deities.

Upon the accounts now given, mountains were the

forts of Paganism, and therefore in several parts of

Scripture, mountains signify the idolatrous temples

and places of worship, as in E^ek. vi. 2-6 ; Jer. ii. 23 ;

Mic. iv. 1.

And thus mountains, by. the rule of analogy, may
be properly used in respect of the monasteries and
churches of the Christian Church when corrupted by
the introduction of saints and images. The aforesaid
notion of the heathens concerning dead heroes was
soon entertained by the new converts to Christianity
in relation to the martyrs or their relics. And the fury
of the people at last .was so great, that they raised up
altars in every place to the martyrs without relics,
helping out the deficiency with dreams and revelar-
tions. By which all their altars are become tombs of
the dead, as were those of the Pagans, and their
churches, the houses of their protectors and saviours ;
all the difference being, that they have taken the
martyrs or heroes of the church, instead of those of
Paganism.

314 MOUNTAIN.

It is also observable, that anciently monasteries
were built upon mountains, and built like forts.
Those in the Greek Church were certainly so, as ap-i
pears by several authors, as Cyril of Alexandria, and
St Chrysostome, who therefore calls the monks " the
dwellers on the mountains.'' On mount Athos there
are still twenty-two monasteries, and about 6000
monks in them. In this they are conformable to their
pattern the Therapeutae of Philo, who dwelt upon a
mountain, and whose cells were called monasteries.

In the Ethiopia language, the same word, viz.
dabuyr, signifies a mountain and a monastery. The
very etymology of the word helps out the signification
of the symbol. For debir a mountain, comes 'from
deber to command, subdue, and govern. So in mili-
tary language, mountains are said to command the
places about them. And accordingly the monasteries
were the forts or mountains of Popery, and so many
authors have styled them. See further illustrations
in Daubuz. ;

Selden and Pococke think that Baal-Peor, men-
tioned in Hosea ix. 10, was so called from the moun-
tain on which he was worshipped. See Numbers xxv.
3 and xxiii. 28; Ps. cvi. 28.

So Jupiter had the additional name of Olympius,
and Mercury of Cyllenius, Ezek. vi. 3, " Set thy face
towards the mountains of Israel, and prophecy against
them." See Deut. xii. 2 ; Jer. ii. 20 ; iii. 6 ; xviii. 6.

Philip second King of Macedon, in his expedition
against Sparta, sacrificed to the gods on each of the
hills, one of which was called Olympus, and the other
Eva ; Polyb. 1. 5, p. 372.

Cyrus, just before his death, offered sacrifice to

MOUNTAIN. 315

Jupiter, the Sun, and the other gods, upon the moun-
tains ; Cyrop. 1. 8, p. 647, ed. Hutch.

Jupiter speaks of Hector as sacrificing to him, on
the summits of Ida. See H. 22, 171.

Great disorders and commotions, especially when
kingdoms are moved by hostile invasions, are ex-
pressed in the Prophetic style, by carrying or casting
mountains into the midst of the sea ; See Ps. xlvi. 2,

*' Therefore we will not fear though the earth be removed,
And though the mountains be carried into the midst of the
sea."

It is said in Rev,, xvi. 20, " And every island fled
away, and the mountains were not found." The
phrase is taken from those mighty earthquakes, in
which every thing is thrown into confusion, and even
mountains are swallowed up, or change their forms.
See Rev. vi. 14.

These mystic mountains in the Apocalypse mean
kingdoms and states, which were no longer found,
because overturned to make way for the Kingdom of
Christ, mentioned by Daniel, which was to fill the
whole earth.

When David says, Ps. xxx. 7, " Lord, by thy favour
tliou hast made my mountain to stand strong," he
means, the stability of his kingdom.

Vitringa, in commenting on Isaiah ii. 14, " and upon
all the high mountains/' &c. has these words, " Hoc
est, ad subvertenda Regna et Respublicas, sive socie-
tates majores et minores, quae suis limitibus circum-
scriptae, si probe sint confirmatae, alte in mundo emi-
neant, celebres sint fama amplitudinis, potentiae, auc-
toritatis, adeo ut difficilius adeantur, destruantur ac

316 MOUNTAIN.... .;MQUTH.

loco moveantur. Vere gerunt figuram et emblema
montium et collium."

MOUTH, according to the Oneirocritics, denotes
the house of the party; and by analogy, the teeth axe
the servants of the household, :

The mouth also signifies the words that proceed
out of it, which, in the sacred style, are the same as
commands and actions, because they imply the effects
of the thoughts ; words or commands being the means
used to communicate the thoughts and decrees to
those that are to execute them.

Hence, for a person or thing to come out of the
mouth of another, signifies to be constituted and com-
manded, to become an agent or minister under a su-
perior power. Thus :

Rev. xvi. 1 3, " I saw three unclean spirits like frogs
come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the
mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false
prophet."

Rev. xvi. 14, " For they are the spirits of devils
working miracles," &c.

Rev. i. 16, " Out of his mouth went a sharp sword."

Rev. xi. 4, " He shall smite the earth with the rod
of his mouth."

Rev. xii. 15, " The serpent cast out of his mouth
water." ,

Rev. ix. 19, " Their power is in their mouths, and
in their tails."

Rey. xi. 5, " If any hurt them, fire proceedeth out
of their mouth." .

The Word of God, or the word that proceeds out
of his mouth, signifies sometimes the .actions of God's
providence, his commands, whereby he rules the

MOUTH.... ..-MYRTLE. 317

worlds, and brings all things to his purpose ; and some-
times that Divine Person, or emanated substance of
himself, who executes his commands as a minister,
and by a metonymy of the abstract for the concrete
usual in holy writ, and in the eastern nations, is call-
ed ike Word of God.

MYRTLE. The myrtle tree was an emblem of
peace.

It is mentioned in the following passages, Neh. viii.
15 ; Isa. xli. 19 ; lv. 13 ; Zech. i. 8.

The Hebrew term is Hedes, from which Hadassah,
the original name of Esther. The note of the Chaldee
Targum on this passage seems remarkable : " They
called her Hedese, or Hadassah, because she was just,
and the just are those that are compared. {tfDfc^ t
myrtle."

The Jews had a proverb, " The myrtle standing
among nettles, is still called a myrtle ;" meaning, that
a godly man living amongst the wicked, is still a
godly man, like Lot in Sodom.

Catullus celebrates it, el. 62,

" Bona cum bona

Nupsit alite virgo,
Floridis velut enitens
Myrtus Asiae ramulis."

and Lucian admires its beauty, in Amor. v. 4, pv^w,
&c. " the myrtle, and several other trees, which excel
in beauty."

On which account Pausanius says it was dedicated
to Venus, along with the rose.

And hence Virgil has, Eclog. 7,

" Formosa myrtus Veneri, sua laurea Phoebo."

In external beauty and fragrance, it is considered

318 MYRTLE....'..NAKEDNESS.

to be a fit emblem of the Christian church, as adorned
with the various graces of the Spirit.

The myrtle is a lowly and tender shrub, and there-
fore the more resembles the saints. Horace applies
to it the epithet fragilis, frail ; and Virgil calls it fe-
wer, tender. And Aristophanes terms it wotefhu*
pvpei, virgin myrtle. It is very fragrant ; hence Ho-
race, lib. 2, od. 15 :

" Myrtus, et omnis copia narium,
Spargent olivetis odorem
Fertilibus."

And Athaeneus, lib. 15, Deipnos., observes, "that
the Egyptian myrtle is acknowledged to excel all
others in the sweetness of its fragrance, as Theophras-
tus writes.

And Ovid, lib. 3, Art. Amor. v. 690,

" Eos maris et lauri, nigraque myrtus olent."

The myrtle is an evergreen. So the Jews, in their
Targum, say of Esther : The name of Esther is Ha-
dassah, or myrtle ; for, as the myrtle never withers,
winter or summer, so the righteous always flourish,
both in this world and that which is to come.

It was used at festivals, as Horace remarks, 1. 1,
od. 4:

" Nunc decet aut viridi nitidum caput impedire myrto,
Aut flore, terra quern ferunt solute."

And Josephus mentions, that at the feast of taber-
nacles, they carried branches of myrtle in their hands.

NAKEDNESS, signifies sin or folly. Thus in
Gen. ; iii. 7, it is taken'~for sin in general. And in
Exod. xxxii. 25 ; andEzek.xvi. 36 ; and2 Chron. xxviii.
19, for idolatry. And so elsewhere in the Scriptures

NAKEDNESS. 319

all kinds of vice, but idolatry in particular, come un-
der the notion of pithiness, or nakedness, or sores.
And therefore to be in the highest degree naked, is to
be guilty of idolatry.

Nakedness signifies also guilt, shame, poverty, or
misery, as being the consequence of punishment of
sin, and of idolatry in particular, a crime which God
never leaves unpunished. Thus in Jer. xlix. 10, " I
have made Esau bare," &c. signifies the destruction of
Esau, God having exposed them naked and defence-
less to the invaders. So in Isa. xlvii. 3,

" Thy nakedness shall be uncovered; even thy shame shall be
seen,"

is interpreted in the next line by

" I will take full vengeance, neither will I sufter man to inter -
ce'de with me ;"

in other words, Babylon should be humbled, and made
a slave.

The Indian interpreter explains this symbol, of dis-
tress, poverty, and disgrace.

The nakedness of enemies is explained by the inter-
preters of omens, as signifying, that by some discovery
of their secrets, a way would be made to vanquish
them in the end. See a remarkable instance in Pro-
copius, quoted by Daubuz.

The nakedness of a land, Gen. xlii. 9, signifies the
weak and ruined parts of it, where the_ country lies
most open and exposed to danger.

There is an admonition in Rev. xvi. 15, couched
in terms which include this symbol, " Behold I come
as a thief; blessed is he that watcheth, and keepeth his
garments, lest he walk naked, and they see his shame,"
i. e. let all who would faithfiilly persevere, watch over

320 NAKEDNESS......NAME.

themselves, to maintain their purity and integrity,
lest when Christ comes they be exposed to disgrace,
and have no covering for their sin and folly.

NAME. The name of a person or thing, accord-
ing to the Hebrew style, frequently imports the qua-
lity or state thereof. Thus, in Ruth. i. 20, "And
she said unto them, Call me not Naomi," i. e. pleasant,
" but call me Mara," i. e. bitter, " for the Almighty
hath dealt very bitterly with me."

And thus, when it is said in Isaiah, ch. 9> " He
shall be called Immanuel," the meaning is, that the
Son there spoken of shall be God with us, dwelling
amongst us. And so in Luke i. 32, " He shall be
called the Son of the Highest," is, he shall be the Son
of the Highest.

And thus in Thucydides, 1. 5, 9, " To be called
the allies of the Lacedaemonians" is the same as to be
their allies, and have effectually the honour and ad-
vantage of that title.

Agreeably to this, a new name signifies a new qua-
lity or state, a change of the former condition, as in
Isa. Ixii. 2,

" And thou shalt be called by a new name,
. Which the month of Jehovah shall fix upon thee."

Hence the custom of changing names upon any re-
markable change of condition. So, on account of the
new covenant made with God, Abraham and Sarah
received those new names from God himself; so Ja-
cob was named Israel; so Joseph had a new name
given him by Pharaoh ; and Daniel another by the
king of Babylon. So ^ur Saviour changed Simon's
name for Peter ; and the primitive Christians took a
new name at their baptism.

NAME, 321

To be called by the name of any owe, signifies to
belong to, to be the property of, or to be in subjection .
to, that- person whose name is called upon the other,
as in Gen. xlviii. 16.

Thus, to be called by the name of God is to be ac-
counted his servant, to be appropriated to him, and
separated from the heathen world, as in Deut. xxviii.
10 ; 2 Chron.,vii. 14 ; Acts xv. 17.

So, because a woman by marriage becomes subject
and the property of her husband, therefore, in Isa. iv.
1, she is said to have the name of her husband called
upon her. ,

And thus, when God had submitted all creatures
.on earth to Adam, in token of their subjection, and
to give him possession of the gift, God brought them
to him to be named.

So David, to express that God is the Lord as well
as Maker of the stars, says, Ps. cxlvii. 4, " He telleth
the number of the stars ; he calleth them all by their

names."

Thus masters gave names to their slaves ; and
these, that it might be publicly known to whom they
belonged, were branded in their foreheads with the
names or .marks of their masters. See Potter's Gre-
cian Antiq. v. 1, p. 65 j Martial, Plautus, &c.

And, for the same reason, soldiers were branded in
the -hand with the, name .or character of their general.
And, on the same account, it was customary to stig-
matise, the .worshippers and votaries of some of the
gods. ,

To call by name implies a superiority to examine
and blame the actions of the persons called. The

Y

322 NAME.

phrase is thus used in IgnatiusY Epistles, and in Vir-
gil's .Eneid, b. 12, v. 759.

Names of men are sometimes taken for the men
themselves, as in Acts i. 15, "The number of the
names," '. e. the number of the men.

And thus in Virgil, Sylvius, Albanum nomen,
means, Sylvius, a man of Albania.

The origin of this expression is to be deduced from
the public registers of the names of citizens, which
were very carefully kept by the Greeks and Romans,
and from the exact account of genealogies among the
Jews ; and from the diptychs or matricula used in
f the primitive church, in which were registered the
names of all the faithful. Hence the expression, to
blot out a man's name, signifies to reject or cast him
out from enjoying any longer the privileges of a citi-
zen or Christian, by blotting out his name out of the
public register or matricula.

Amos vi. 1, " Which are named chief of the na-
tions," &c.

The Hebrew word implies an allusion to the cus-
'tom of marking a name or character by punctures.
See Lowth on Isa. xliv. 5. They call themselves,
not after their religious ancestors, but after the chief
of the idolatrous nations, with whom they intermarry,
contrary to their law.

"Persons of name" were "the known ones," or
principal men, to whom the house of Israel came for
justice, and to pay court. None but men of note
seem to have been thus distinguished.

Man of name is a man' of renown ; so David is call-
ed on account of his victories \ 2 Sam. vii. 9 ; 1 Sam.

NAME. 323

xviii. 7 ; 2 Sam, xii. 28. And the Roman generals
used to take names from their victories, as Africanus,
Asiaticus, Macedonicus, arid the like ; and sometimes
from: things done at home for the public good, as
Cicero was saluted Pater Patrice, father of his coun-
try, and Augustus afterwards.

The word shem, name, denotes simply an object of
worship or invocation. Hence, eshem, the name, sig-
nifies the object of worship to Israel ; Lev. xxiv. 11.
And so in Exod. xx. 25, when God says, / record
my name, the meaning is, I choose a place where I
require to be worshipped, wherein I will shew my
glory and power, and hear the prayers of them that
invoke me.

Thus the declaration of God, in Exod. iii. 15, when
he first appeared to Moses, " This is my name for
ever, and this is my memorial to all generations," re-
spects his worship. It is that name by which he is
to be remembered, and distinguished from all false
objects ; for the word memorial is a term of the ri-
tuals, Lev. ii. 2. Therefore, when God forbids Israel,
in Exod. xxiii. 13, even to make mention of the names
of other gods, he forbids to worship them, or to com-
memorate any of their actions. For God calls him-
self, Exod. xxxiv. 14, a jealous God ; in the Septua-
gint, j|Arax ovofut, a jealous name, or object of wor-
ship. It was on this account that Moses enquired
after the name of God, when he appeared to him ;
Exod. iii. 13. And in Judges xiii. 17, Manoah says
to the angel, " What is thy name, that when thy say-
ings come to pass, we may do thee honour ;" an ex-
pression originating probably in this, that when God
appeared by vision, dream, or miracle to the patri-

324 NAME......NIGHT.

archs, they noted the" place, arid ' commemorated the
event by some solemn acts of devotion, arid the im-
position of a name, as in Gen. xii. 7 8 ; xiii. 4-18 ;
xxviii. 18, 19. Arid. so in regard to false deities;
wherever they were supposed to have performed any
thing memorable, or wherever they were understood
to preside and to favour their votaries, there a monu-
ment was raised, and the name invoked with suitable
solemnities. See an instance in Pap. Statius, 1. 4, v.
664.

Hence it comes, that hot only among the Jewish
authors but also the Gentile, to name is the same as
to invoke in divine worship.

And thus, to be baptized into the name of the Fa-
ther, Son, and Holy Ghost, is to be baptized into
their worship, as the one God.

NIGHT, the time for sleep. . 1 Thess. v. 7, " They
that sleep, sleep in the night f whence sleep, among
the mythologists, is called " the son of Night." Hip-
pocrates, in his prognostics, says, " It is proper to be
awake in the day, and to sleep in the night." And
Virgil, JSn. 8, calls sleep donum noctis opacae, the
gift of dark night. And Valer. Flaccus, Argon, 1. 5,

" Nox hominum genus et duros miserata labores,
Retulerat fessis optata silentia rebus."

Homer thus expresses it, Odyssey, 1. 3, v. 334,

" The lamp of day is quench'd beneath the deep,
And soft approach the balmy hours of sleep ;
Nor fits it to prolong the heavenly feast,
Timeless, indecent, but retire to rest."

The whole term of human life is frequently in
Scripture called a day /'see Job, eh. 14, and other
places. But in one passage it is called nights Rom.
xiii. 12, " The night is far spent (that is, the time of

NIGHT. 325

ignorance and profaneness), the day is at hand/' Or
as the same apostle says, Eph. v. 8, " Ye were once
darkness, now are ye light in the Lord."

Night being the time of darkness, the image and
shadow of death, in which the beasts of prey go forth
to devour, symbolically signifies a time of adversity
and affliction, in which men prey upon each other,
and the stronger tyrannize over the weaker. Thus,
Isa. xxi. 12, " Watchman, what of the night ?" an in-
quiry how long their captivity was to last.

Zech. xiv. 6, 7>

" And there shall be one day
(It is known to Jehovah)
It shall be neither day nor night,
But at eventide there shall be light."

See Rev. xxi. 23, and xxii. 5, meaning, that there
shall be no vicissitude of day and night, but a con-
stant light ; and this signifies, symbolically, that there
shall be no vicissitude of peace and war, but a con-
stant state of quiet and happiness.

Daubuz quotes, from Herbelot, to shew the notion
of the Arabians : " In the Humajoun-nameh it is
said,. he that has done justice in this night has built
himself a house for the next day, meaning, says Her-
belot, by this night, the present life of this world,
which .is nothing but darkness; and by the next day,
the future life, which is to be a clear day for good
men."

The night is plainly put for a time of "ignorance
and helplessness in Micah iii. 6,

" Wherefore there shall be night to you, so that ye shall have

no vision ;

And there shall be darkness to you, so that ye shall have no
divination '..--.

326 NIGHT OAK.

And -the sun shall go down upon the prophets,
And the day shall be dark upon them."

The paraphrase of Erasmus on 1 Thess. v. 7> de-
serves to be noticed : " Dies metuendus iis," &c. i. e.
the day of final judgment is to be dreaded by those
wha, blinded by their vices, lead a sort of nocturnal
life ; but ye, brethren, need not be afraid lest it should
overtake you suddenly ; for all you, who follow Christ,
do not belong to the kingdom of darkness, but to the
kingdom of light and of God. Henceforward, if we
wish not to be overtaken, let us not sleep, as others
do, who know not the light of Christ, but let us watch
and be sober, always circumspect, that nothing may
be admitted through inadvertence into the mind,
which may offend either God or man, &c.

In John ix_4, night is put for death. So Horace,
1...1, ode 4, "Jam te premet nox,'* Soon will the
night o'ertake my friend. And, ode 28, line 15,
" Omnes una manet nox," One night remains ; for
alL

Isaiah xv. 1, the words " in the night" are under-
stood by Vitringa to mean suddenly, unexpectedly j
but there is some doubt about the correctness of the
present reading. See Lowth's note.

OAK, the symbol of men of high rank and power.

In Isa. ii. 13, .'" the oaks of Bashan" are used in
the way of metaphor, for kings, princes, and the like.
See Zech. xi. 2, where, under the image of trees, the
fall of mighty men and the subversion of the Jewish
polity, are represented :

" Howl, O fir tree, because the cedar is fallen,
Because the goodly ones are destroyed.
Howl, O ye oaks of Bashan,
Because the fenced wood ia felled."

OAK. 327

In Amos ii. 9, the Amorite is said to be " strong
as the oaks,"

The original Hebrew term for oak is derived, ac-
cording to Celsius, from ail, robur, which is the La-
tin word for the oak, on account of its hardness and
strength.

Oaks were the scene of idolatrous worship, and
therefore are frequently mentioned as denoting such
practices.

Jer. ii. 34,

** 1 have not found it (the blood) in a digged hole,
But upon every oak."

So Blayney renders it, in conformity to the Septua-
gint and the Syriac ; and his note on the passage is :
" In the law it is commanded, Lev. xvii. 13, that the
blood of animals killed in hunting should be covered
with dust ; in order, no doubt, to create a horror at
the sight of blood. In allusion to this command, it
is urged against Jerusalem, Ezek. xxiv. 7, that she
had not only shed blood in the midst of her, but that
" she had set it upon the top of a rock, and poured
it not upon the ground, to cover it with dust ;" that
is, she had seemed to glory in the crime, by doing it
in the most open and audacious manner, so as to
challenge God's vengeance. In like manner, it is
said here, that God had not discovered the blood that
was shed in holes under ground, but that it was
sprinkled upon every oak, before which their inhuman
sacrifices had been performed.

The oak was not merely the scene of idolatrous
worship, but sometimes the material of which the
idol was made. Isa. xliv. 14, " He taketh the oak

328

to make a" God." Horace has something similarly
severe :

" Olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum,

Cum faber, incertus scamnum faceretne Priapum,
\. . , Maluit esse Deum."

Sacred groves were a very ancient and favourite
appendage of idolatry. They were furnished with
the temple of the God to whom they were dedicated*
with altars, images, and every thing necessary for
performing the various rites of worship offered there';
and were the scenes of many impure ceremonies, and
of much abominable superstition. See Ezek. xx. 28,
and Hosea;iv. 13, where idolatrous worship and its
accompaniments

" Under the oak, and the poplar, and the ilex."

are severely reprehended.

OIL. The use of oil, in the anointing of a per-
son, signifies the designation or inauguration of that
person to some high office or dignity.

Ps. xlv. 7> " God hath anointed thee with the oil
of gladness above thy fellows." See Heb. i. 9.

It is applied to the Jewish kings. 1 Sam. x. 1,
"Then Samuel took a vial of oil, and poured it on
Saul's head, and kissed him. 2 Sam. i. 21 ; see also
1 Sam. xvi. 1, 13 ; 1 Kings i. 39 ; 2 Kings ix. 6.

It is applied to the Messiah, Isa. Ixi. 1 ; compared
with Luke iv. 18, and Acts iv. 27, and x. 38.

It is applied to Cyrus, Isa. xlv. 1. :

It is applied to Aaron the Priest, Lev. viii. 12 ;
and to the prophets, 1 Kings xix. 16.

The anointing in 1 John ii. 27, is the spirit of il-
lumination, furnishing with gifts and graces.

OIL. 329

This consecration with oil not only served as a
form of admission to important functions, but was
considered as adding a sacredness to their persons*
and sometimes served as a guard against violence, in
consequence of the respect attached to it. " God
forbid," says David, " that I should stretch forth my
hand against Saul, since he is the anointed of Jehovah,
1 Sam. xxiv. 6. ~

Sometimes mere designation, without unction, is
implied in it, as in the case of Cyrus, Isa. xlv. 1, who
was selected by God to restore Judah, and for the
rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem.

Sometimes it is used of the patriarchs Abraham,
Isaac, and. Jacob, as in Ps. cv. 15, " Touch not mine
anointed ones" for the word is in the plural number ;
hot as literally anointed, but as specially favoured of
God, and set apart to be the heads or progenitors of
a great nation.

It is more eminently used as applicable to the Me-
diator of the New Covenant, by David, Ps. ii. 2, who
represents him as King of Zion ; by Isaiah, Ixi. 1, as
the proclaimer of great and good tidings ; by Daniel,
ix. 25, as making expiation for the sins of the people.

And this was the substance of Apostolic preaching,
e. g. Acts xvii. 18, " This Jesus whom I preach to
you is the Anointed One." Acts xviii. 5, " Paul
testified to the Jews, that Jesus was the Anointed
One." Acts xviii. 28, " Shewing by the Scriptures
that Jesus was the Anointed One."

The oil of gladness, Ps. xlv. 7> denotes the unction
of the Holy Spirit anciently typified by oil, by which
unction Jesus was appointed to the offices of Prophet,
Priest, and King.

330 OIL OLIVE-TREE.

In Zech. iv. 14, Joshua the high priest and Zeru-
babel are styled Sons of Oil, as being anointed with
the Holy Spirit, and made his instruments in re-esta-
blishing the Church and State of the Jews. Compare
verses 6 and 12.

Christians, as followers of the Messiah, and called
by his name, may be considered as anointed ones,
consecrated to his service. Would they were all
such!

Oil is also the symbol of abundance, fertility, joy,
&c. See Ps. xxiii. 5, xcii. 11, cxli. 5 ; Cant. i. 3 ;
Isa. Ixi. 3.

It is so considered, on account of its fragrance and
salutary qualities. The latter are more particularly
recognised in the New Testament, by the Apostle
James, v. 14, where he enjoins that the sick should
be anointed with oil, in the name of the Lord, as an
accompaniment of prayer^ for their 'recovery. See
also Mark vi. 13. This ceremony, for it cannot be
called an institution, was continued for some length
of time in the primitive church ; but it seems to have
ceased when the miraculous gifts of healing were
withdrawn. See the case of Proculus, mentioned by
Tertullian in his address to Scapula, who is said to
have cured the Emperor Severus of a certain distem-
per by the use of oil; for which service that Empe-
ror was favourable afterwards to the Christians, and
kept Proculus as long as he lived. in his palace. Je-
rome and Chrysostom also mention cures of this
kind, but how far they are to be esteemed miraculous
must be left, to every^ene's judgment.

OLIVE-TREE, on account of its verdure, sound-

OLIVE-TREE 331

ness, and the usefulness of the oil it produces, is the
symbol of prosperity, plenty, and enjoyment*

Thus the Psalmist, Ps. cxxviii. 3, describing the
happiness of a man blessed of God, says, " Thy chil-
dren shall be like the olive branches round about thy
table."

It is also the symbol of peace and abated anger.
Thus Noah's dove, Gen. viii. 1 1, had, on her return
to the ark, an olive leaf in her mouth.

In enumerating the sources of aliment and wealth,
the prophet Habakkuk, iii. 17, includes this among
them, " though the labour of the olive should fail."

David compares himself to a green olive-tree in
the house of God, Ps. Iii. 8. Hosea uses similar lan-
guage respecting Israel, ch. xiv. 6, " his beauty
shall be as the olive-tree" a simile employed also by
Paul, in adverting to their state before their rejection,
where he speaks " of the root and fatness of the olive-
tree," Rom. xi. 17, 24.

In Zech. iv. 3, 1 1 , 14, the two olive-trees on either
side of the lamp-sconces, pouring oil into the lamps,
are there explained to be the two anointed ones ; Ze-
rubbabel as captain of the people, and Joshua as high
priest. And this signified that these two maintained
the nation of the captive Jews, both as to their eccle-
siastical and civil state ; as the olive-trees which af-
ford oil maintain the light in the lamps, the symbols
of government.

Reference seems to be made to this in Rev. xi. 4,
where the two witnesses are described as the " two
olive-trees, and. the two candlesticks, standing before
the God of the earth ;" . e. the faithful in every age,
who refuse to comply with the general corruption

332 OLIVE-TREE.... ..OX.

shall be constantly supported by divine aid, as if
a lamp were kept always burning, by a continual
supply of oil from a living olive-tree, constantly feed-
ing it with the aliment of its flame, that it may never
go tmt in darkness.

The olive became the emblem of peace to various
and distant nations. See Virgil, J5n. 7, 1. 154; 8.
116 ; 11. 101. Livy, b. 39. c. 16 ; and 14. c. 25 ;
and Statius, Theb. 1. 12.

OX. The ox appears as one of the cherubic em-
blems' in Ezekiel's vision, ch. i. 10 ; and the same
seems to have been copied in a perverted way in the
idolatrous images of the heathen, e. g.

Moloch had the head of a calf or steer.

Apis or Serapis was represented in the form of a
bull.

Mnevis, who was kept at Memphis, was figured in
the same form.

Baal, or the Sun, was worshipped under the form
of an animal of the ox or beeve kind. We read of
the heifer Baal in Tobit i. 5.

The Gauls worshipped a brazen bull.

Juggernaut's temple in the East Indies has, in the
middle of it, an ox cut in one entire stone larger than
the life.

In Acts xiv. 13, we find the priest of Jupiter
bringing oxen for sacrifice. -

In 1 Cor. ix. 9, the question, " Doth God take
care for oxen ?" leads the mind to the consideration of
that higher sense the apostle has in view, namely, the
maintenance of the Christian ministry ; and is a proof,
amongst others, that many injunctions under the law
were- emblematical of Gospel institutions.

OX..;. ..PALM. 333

r The ox has always been the symbol of agriculture,
as Suidas terms it, who relates that the Egyptian
Apis was a certain wealthy person, who, during a fa-
mine at Alexandria, relieved the people ; at whose
death they erected a temple to his memory, in which
an ox was nourished, as the hieroglyphic of husbandry.
And Abarbanel says, " Therefore Jeroboam chose
the appearance of an ox from the chariot of the che^
rubim, because it is the sign of abundance of corn
and blessing of the nations." And so it is represent-
ed in Greek coins, an ox with an ear of corn, or a
plough, to denote the fertility of the country. And
the daughter of Zion is compared by Micah, iv. 12,
13, to this animal, in a beautiful allegory.

See under Calf.

PALM. Branches of palm, trees are the symbol
of joy after a victory, attended with antecedent suf-
ferings.

By the Mosaical law, Lev. xxiii. 40, they were used
as a token of joy at the feast of tabernacles.

And they were used on any solemn occasion of
joy> as after a victory or deliverance. 1 Macca. xiii.
51 ; John xii. 13.

With Philo, the palm is the symbol of victory.
Alleg. 1. 2. p. 50. And Plutarch (Sympos. 1. 8, c. 4),
gives the same signification, assigning the reason of
it, from the natural property of the palm tree to rise
up. against pressure. Hence palma for victory, of
which numerous examples might be given from
Horace, Cicero, Plautus, Ovid, Terence, and others.

And hence the toga of a triumphing emperor was
called palmata, as having branches of palms painted
thereon* Martial, b. .7, ep. 3. Servius ad Aen. 1. 2.

334 PALM.

Ps. xcii. 12, " The righteous shall flourish like the
palm tree." Cardan observes, that the palm tree con-
tinues long in its youthful state ; so that lie who
plants one, will scarcely live to see the fruit of it.

Rev. vii. 9 " Palms in their hands."

" Quid per palmas nisi praemia victorise designan-
tur," &c. ; i. e. what is meant by palms here, but the
rewards of victory ? For these are wont to be given
only to conquerors. Hence also it is written of
those, who in the contest of martyrdom have over-
come the ancient enemy, and now rejoice as victors
in their native region, that they have palms in their
hands. Gregor. Magn. in Ezek. 1. 2, p. 17.

It is easy to see what the multitude had in view,
when they carried palm branches before the Saviour,
John xii. 13. Their actions and words corresponded
" Hosanna, (i. e. save us) blessed is the king of Is-
rael that cometh in the name of the Lord."

The ancients always speak of it as a stately and
noble tree. It was esteemed an emblem of honour,
and made use of as a reward of victory. " Plurima-
rum palmarum homo," was a proverbial expression
among the Romans, for a soldier of merit. Pliny
speaks of the various species of palms, and of the
great repute in which they were held by the Baby-
lonians. He says, that the noblest of them were
styled the royal palms, and supposes that they -were
so called from their being set apart for the king's use.
But they were very early an emblem of royalty, and
it is a circumstance included in their original name,
p|. We find fronvApuleius, that Mercury, the
Hermes of Egypt, was represented with a palm branch
in his hand, and his priests at Hermapolis used to

PALM. 335

have them stuck in their sandals, on the outside. The
goddess Isis was thus represented, and we may infer
that Hermes had the like ornaments, which the Greeks
mistook for feathers, and have, in consequence of it,
added wings to his feet. The Jews used to cany
boughs of the same tree at some of their festivals,
and particularly at the celebration of their nuptials.
In how great estimation this tree was held of old, we
may learn from many passages in the sacred writings.
Solomon says to his espoused, " How fair and how
pleasant art thou, O love, for delights, thy stature is
like a palm tree." And the Psalmist, for an en-
couragement to holiness, says, " That the righteous
shall flourish like the palm tree," Ps. xciii. 12, for the
palm was supposed to rise under a weight, and to
thrive in proportion to its being depressed.

The ancients had an opinion that the palm was
immortal, at least, if it did die, it recovered again,
and obtained a second life by renewal. Hence the
story of the bird styled the Phoenix, is thought to
have been borrowed from this tree. We find it to
have been an emblem of immortality among all na-
tions, sacred and profane. The blessed in heaven are
represented in the Apocalypse by John, " as standing
before the throne in white robes, with branches of
palm in their hands." The notion of this plant being
an emblem of royalty prevailed so far, that when our
Saviour made his last entrance into Jerusalem, the
people took branches of palm trees, and accosted him
as a prince, crying, " Hosanna, blessed is the king of
Israel;" John xii. 13.

The branch of a palm tree was called bai in Egypt,
and it had the same name in other places. Baia, (item,

336 PALM PAPS.... ..PARADISE.

from which our English bay, are used for palm
branches by John, in the passage just quoted.

Judea was denoted by a palm tree, because that
country abounded particularly in palms, and because
the Jews used the leaves in their sacred rites, and
they had a solemnity called by that name, -whence
on Roman coins we see a palm tree, and a female sit-
ting sad under it, with this inscription, Judaea capta.

PAPS are explained by the Oneirocritics to sig-
nify sons and daughters, and the symbol is very ade-
quate, the breasts being designed for the nurture of
children.

Hence Job xxi. 24, to express that a man has great
substance to uphold his family, says, " His breasts
are full of milk." But the original term here is sup-
posed by some to mean bowels or intestines, rather
than breasts. See Parkhurst on Other, and Durell
on the passage.

In Hosea ix. 14, a miscarrying womb, and dry
breasts, signify loss or want of children.

PARADISE. Luke xxiii. 43 ; 2 Cor. xii. 4 ;
Rev. ii. 7-

Paradise signifies a garden, park, or inclosure, full
of valuable trees, fruits, and herbs, in short, a garden
of pleasure, such as that in which our first parents
were placed in a state of innocence, called by the
Hebrew .name of Oden or Eden ; L e. pleasure.

Hence it is the symbol of joy, happiness, delight.
The original term peredes, occurs in Nehem. ii. 8,
where it is called " the king's forest," or paradise of
trees ; in Eccles. ii. 5, " I made me gardens ;" i. e.
paradises ; and Cant. iv. 13, "Thy plants are an or-
chard of pomegranates."

PARADISE. 337

It is supposed to be derived from pered to separ-
ate, and the Arabic des to hide, as denoting a secret
enclosure, or separate covert. The word is applied
in this sense by Herodotus, Xenophon, and Diodorus
Siculus. There is a passage in Xenophon's Oecono-
mics, where Socrates says, " That the king of Persia,
wherever he is, takes particular care to have gardens
or inclosures, which are . called paradises, fall of every
thing beautiful and good that the earth can produce."

Such were the xrneoi xpftatfot, or pensile gardens of
the Persians, which Diodorus Siculus mentions, which
were situated near the royal palace. Such also were
the gardens of Lucullus, of which Plutarch speaks.
And the gardens of Sallust which Aurelian loved to
dwell in. See Vopiscus.

Julius Pollux, Onomasticon, 1. 9, c. 12, observes,
" Paradise .seems to be a barbaric name, but like
many other Persic words, it came by use to be ad-
mitted into the Greek language."

From the pleasantness of such a place, paradise is
in general the symbol of any pleasant or happy state,
as in Ezek. xxviii. 13, " Thou hast been in Eden, the
garden of God."

Ezekiel here, in his prophecy against Tyre, whose
merchants traded to all parts of the earth, observes,
that they had been at the garden of God, and that
they brought thence precious stones, &c. "Whence it
may be conjectured, that the site of paradise was near
Babylon, between Korna and Barfsora, and amongst
the domains of the Assyrian empire. Shuckford. v. 4,
p. 125, &c.

With Philo, Paradise is the 'symbol of virtue con-
ferring peace, ease, and joy. And, according to the

338 PARADISE.... ..PEARLS.

Indian, c. 8, the fruits of paradise are divine and "use-
ful notions.

In the New Testament, the term is used to denote
the mansion of good souls in their state of separation,
"or the state of the faithful between death and the
"resurrection. It is curious, that the Jews employ
the terms paradise, and garden of Eden, to the inter-
mediate state of holy departed souls. See Grotius
and Wetstein on Luke xxiii. 43. Hence, when ap-
plied to a future state, it must denote a place wholly
devoted to the worship and service of God, and
abounding with every thing that can constitute the
felicity of an immortal spirit.

To denote the same state, the Jews sometimes
used the phrase " Abraham's bosom," a metaphor bor-
rowed from the manner in which they reclined at
meals. Luke xvi. 22.

There is a distinction, therefore, to be made be-
tween paradise and heaven, or the seat of the glorious
hierarchy. The enjoyment of paradise is confined to
"the intermediate state ; that of heaven is necessarily
deferred till the creation of the new heavens and new
earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness. See Camp-
bell's Prel. Diss. 6, p. 2.

Origen's note on 2 Cor. xii. 4, is good : " If Paul,"
says 'he, " saw such unutterable things, even though
afterwards to descend from the third heaven, how
many more, and how much greater shall we know,
when, having followed Jesus and taken up his cross,
we shall be admitted into the blessed state above,
never more. to quit it." --Exhort, ad Martyr, p. 175.

PEARLS. ' Rfev; xxi.,21, " And the twelve gates
Svere twelve pearls." -

PEARLS.... ..PILLAR. 339

The reference seems to be to Isa. liv. 11, 12, and
one would repeat here what Lowth has said there, as
being equally applicable : " These seem to be
general Images to express beauty, magnificence, pu-
rity, strength, and solidity, agreeably to the ideas of
"the Eastern nations ; and to have never been intend-
ed to be strictly scrutinized, or minutely and parti-
cularly explained, as if they had each of them some
precise, moral, or spiritual meaning.

Tobit, in his prophecy of the final restoration of
Israel, describes the New Jerusalem in the same ori-
ental manner : " For Jerusalem shall be built up with
sapphires, and emeralds, and precious stones; thy
walls, and towers, and battlements, with pure gold.
And the streets of Jerusalem shall be paved with
beryl, and carbuncle, and stones of Ophir." Tobit
xiii. 16, 17-

PILLAR is the support and ornament of a build-
ing, and symbolically signifies the chief prop of a fa-
mily, city, or state.

Paul uses the symbol, Gal. ii. 9, in speaking of the
Apostles, James, Cephas, and John : . " As pillars are
the supports of a building, so the three Apostles here
mentioned were esteemed as pillars in the church ;"
. c.. persons of the greatest authority and eminence.
.James, as the brother of our Lord, Peter or Cephas,
on account of his confession, on which the church of
Christ was to 'be built, and John, as the beloved dis-
ciple of our Lord. It is probable also, that the
churches of Judea and Jerusalem were peculiarly -un-
der the inspection of these three Apostles.

In Euripides, the pillars of families are the male
children. (Iphig; Taur).

340 PILLAR.... ..POMEGRANATE.

In the Oneirocritics, pillars signify the princes or
nobles in a kingdom.

Pillar of iron, the symbol of great firmness and
duration ; and as such used in the prophet Jeremiah,
i. 18.

Pillars burning with a clear fire, without being

destroyed, signify, according to Artemidorus, 1. 2, c.
10, That the children of the Dreamer shall grow
better and more illustrious.

For fire implies persecution and torment ; and as
fire trieth gold, so does adversity the good and vali-
ant. . . , . ......

This interpretation of pillars burning with ; fire
without, being consumed, greatly illustrates the sym-
bol of the bush burning with fire, and remaining un-
consumed in Exod. iii. 2. " For, this at once, set forth
the miraculous preservation of the Israelites in the
Egyptian fiery furnace, or their state of oppression
there, and their wonderful deliverance from thence.

Pillar of salt, Gen. xix. 26, an encrusted column, a
perpetual monument of the divine anger ; for salt
weans perpetuity.

POMEGRANATE, an exceedingly beautiful
fruit, resembling an apple, the form of which was
borrowed as an ornament to the high priest's ephod.
Exod. xxxviii.. 33, 34,. on which Drexelius remarks,
" that they were symbolical of the reward annexed
to virtue ; and were placed, not at the top, or in the
middle,, but at the bottom of the garment, as it is
not the beginning or the progress, but the persever-
ing close of a virtuous life, that obtains the crown."

Cant. iv. 3, " Thy cheeks are like a piece of pome-
granate about thy locks." The cheeks are compared

POMEGRANATE PORTRAITS. 341

to a, piece of this fruit, because the pomegranate,
when whole, is of a dull colour ; but, when cut up,
of a lively beautiful vermilion. Modesty and ingenu-
ousness are called by this name in Arabic. See Du-
rell in loc.
Ezek. xix. 10,

" Thy mother was like a pomegranate
Planted by the waters. 1 "

Ray, in his Hist. Plant, p. 1462, fol. says of the
pomegranate,

" Umbras amare aiunt et rigationes."
. Cant. viii. 1, " Wine of my pomegranates;" i. e.
either wine acidulated with the juice of pomegran-
ates, which the Turks use, or wine made of the juice,
such as Sir John Chardin mentions.

Farkhurst, whose bias, though an amiable man, is
always towards Hutchinsonian interpretations, thinks,
the brazen pomegranates which Solomon placed in
the network over the -crowns which were on the top
of the two brazen pillars, were meant to represent
the fixed stars strongly reflecting light on the earth
and planets.

The Syrian idol, Rimmon, has his name from the
same Hebrew term. Achilles Tatius mentions an
ancient temple at Pelusium in Egypt, in which was
a statue of the deity styled Zeus (or Jupiter), Casius,
holding this mysterious fruit, the pomegranate, in his
hand.

PORTRAITS. It is impossible to read the des-
cription given by Ezekiel, ch. xxiii. 14, 15, of the
images of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with vermilion,
&c. without being reminded of similar appearances
found in the caverns of the Thebais, of Elephanta,

342 PORTRAITS......POSTUBE.

and Elora^ as detailed by travellers.' See Maurice's
Indian Antiq. v. 2, passim.

POSTURE. The posture of persons acting, de-'
termines, in some measure, the nature or kind of their
actions.

Standing signifies resisting, defending, struggling,
and contending for victory, giving assistance to
friends and the like, as in Acts vii. 55, Christ is said
to be standing when he appeared to Stephen, as
ready to assist him in his agony.

To stand before another, is a posture of service,
Deut. x. 8; 1 Kings x. 8; 1 Sam. xvi. 22; 2 Chroc.
xviii. 18; Luke i. 19.

Walking among, or in the midst, is a posture of
dignity and authority, of one that is busy, and
watching and defending those whom he walks about
or amongst.

Thus God, to represent himself as protecting and
governing the Israelites, says, in Lev. xxvi. 12,
"That he would walk amongst them." And the pro-
tecting angel, in Dan, iv. 13, 23, is called a watch-
man or patroller, one that goes about to defend from
any surprise. And so Homer, in his Iliad, 1. 1, v. 37.
has used the symbol in relation to Apollo, of whom
lie says, 05 %v<mv r. x. where the Scholiast explains

<ii[itptt&r>x.cx.i by V7rsgptet%6if* For indeed tyi cti>eur<ru$ is

but synonymous to it.

Sitting signifies ruling, reigning, judging, and en-
joying peace.

Thus, in Judges v. 10, " Ye that sit in judgment,"
are the magistrates or judges. In 2 Sam. xix. 8,
* The king sitteth in the gate," i. e. he is ready to
execute any duty of a king.

PQSTU11E...J..PRINCE. 343

And to,sit on the throne, is always synonymous to
reigning, in; the Scripture ;., and is so used by Virgil
in his JSneid, 1. 7, v. 169 ; a seat or throne being the
symbol of government.

Sitting, with other adjuncts, has a different signifi-
cation. As, to sit upon the earth, or on a dunghill,
signifies to be in extreme misery.

To sit in darkness, is to be in prison and slavery.

To sit as a widow, is to mourn as a widow.

To fall down or prostrate before another, is the
symbol of submission and homage. See Gen. xxxvii.
7, 8 ; xxvii. 29 ; Isa. xlv. 14.

PRINCE. This title, as is well known, is applied
to Jesus Christ, in various forms.

He is the Prince of peace, Isa. ix. 6 ; the Prince
of life, Acts iii. 15; the Prince of the kings of the
earth, RevTT. 5 ; the Prince of princes, Dan. viii. 25 ;
the Prince of the host, Dan. viii. 11.

The title is once given to Satan, as prince of this
world, John xii. 31. Comp. Matt. iv. 19-

But there is a peculiar sense in which the term is
used by Daniel. Thus, ch. x. 13, Prince of the king-
dom of Persia; x. 21, Michael your Prince; x. 20,
the Prince of Grsecia.

In these passages the term probably means " a tu-
telary angel." The doctrine of tutelary angels of dif-
ferent countries seems to be countenanced in several
passages, and especially by Zech. vi. 5. See also
Zech. iii. 1 ; and Jude, verse 9 ; and Rev. xii. 7-

Michael and Gabriel were probably the tutelary
angels of the Jews, and would be their only protec-
tors in the various contests for empire till the coming
of Christ.

344 PRINCE.... ..PROPHECY.

That there are principalities in the heavenly hie-
rarchy, seems plain from several places in the New
Testament, e. g. Rom. viii. 38 ; Eph. i. 21 ; iii. 10 ;
Col. i. 16 ; ii. 10 ; Jude, verse 6. That there are
such among the apostate angels, appears from Eph.
vi. 12, CoLiK 15.

The names Michael and Gabriel do not occur in
any books of the Old Testament that were written
before the captivity; and it is suggested by some,
that they were borrowed from the Chaldeans, with
whom and the Persians, the doctrine of the general
administration and superintendence of angels over
empires and provinces was commonly received.

We know, and can know, no more of the offices of
these celestial agents, than what is revealed to us ;
and therefore it is in vain to indulge conjecture. In
general, as Wintle well observes, we may conclude,
that they will be favourable or unfavourable to any
nation or people, according to their deserts ; and that
all things, and all powers, will work together for good
to those that fear and love God.

PROPHECY consists, not only in predicting fu-
ture events by Divine inspiration, but also in a pub-
lic study and zeal for God's laws; the office of the
ancient prophets being not only to reveal future events
(which power was rather given them to establish their
commission), but also to preach and maintain the law
of God, already established, when the Israelites for-
sook it, and to be zealous for it even unto death ; to
the end that their zeal and constancy might be a wit-
ness arid testimony against" their persecutors, of the
truth -of God's law.

The primitive notion also of a prophet, is to be a

PROPHECY. 345

spokesman, or interpreter, or declarer of the mind of
God to man, as appears by comparing Exod. vii. 1.
with Exod; iv. 16. See also Virgil's ./Eneid, 1. 10,
v. 175.

So that to prophesy is to bear witness or testimony
to the truth against errors and corruptions. And
hence to prophesy and to witness are used as near
akin in several places of Scripture.

Thus, when our Saviour was going to prophesy
that one of his disciples should betray him, the word
used is spstglvpo-e, he testified, instead of he prophesied,
John xiii. 21.

So in John i. 7, " to witness concerning the light,"
signifies to preach the Gospel, to be the great pro-
phet and forerunner of the Messiah. So in Acts i. 8,
and xxii. 15, the apostles and Paul are said to be
witnesses, because they were preachers or prophets ;
and in Acts xx. 23, the Holy Spirit is said to witness,
2ietft*lvfTeei. See likewise 1 Peter i. 11.

And thus our Saviour "came into the world to
bear witness to the truth," i. e. to declare the. will of
God to men, as that great Prophet, Deut. xviii. 1 5, 1 9,
whom whosoever would not hear, should be cut off
from his people.

Prov. xxx. 1, and xxxi. 1, the prophecy which his
mother taught him ; rather the charge or lesson which
king Lemuel's mother taught him. &J^, meska, is
frequently used by the prophets to signify what they
were charged with, and thence called a burden.

Rev. xi; 6, " These have power to shut heaven,
that it rain not in the days of their prophecy," &c.

An allusion to what Elijah and Moses did ; mean-
ing, that the witnesses should have similar power

346, PROPHECY. RAIN.

givfin'them to smite the earth with plagues; at least,
what they denounce against the enemies of truth.
Gqd w.ill accomplish. The witnesses here are not
single persons, but a perpetual collective body of men,
or a succession of witnesses against the errors and
false worship introduced into the church.

RAIN is the symbol of Divine benignity, vouch-
safed as the reward of human obedience. Thus:

Hosea x. 12,

" Sow to yourselves in righteousness,
Reap in the fruit of loving-kindness,
Break up to yourselves the fallow-ground of knowledge,
That ye may seek Jehovah,
Till he come and rain righteousness upon you."

Hosea vi. 3,

" His going forth is prepared as the morning,
And he shall come to us as the rain,
As the latter rain which watereth the earth."

i. e. he shall come as our deliverer, as surely as the
morning returns after the night, or the latter rain
comes in its season.

Rain is used as the symbol of discourse and in-
struction.

Deut. xxxii. 2,
" My doctrine shall drop as the rain."

Job xxix. 22, 23,

" After my words they spake not again,
And my speech dropped upon them.
And they waited for me as for the rain,
And they opened their mouth wide as for the latter rain."

See alsa Isa. Iv. 10, 11, 12, 13, where the same is
beautifully expressed, and the effects described under
highly poetical images. The wilderness turned into
a paradise, Lebanon into Carmel, the desart of the

RAIN. 347

Gentiles watered with the heavenly snow and rain,
so that (as the Chaldee gives the moral sense of the
emblem) " instead of the wicked shall arise the just,
and instead of sinners, such as fear to sin."

The divine influences are compared to rain in Isa.
xliv. 3, 4:

** For I will pour out waters on the thirsty,
And flowing streams on the dry ground ;
I will pour out my spirit upon thy seed,
And my blessing on thine offspring ;
And they shall spring up as grass among the waters,
As the willows beside the aqueducts."

Zech. x. 1, and xiv. 17> are in like manner under-
stood by Vitringa to mean " spiritual" rain. And he
remarks on the latter place, "If the Egyptians do not
come up to the feast of tabernacles, there shall be no
rain upon them ;" these words appear a paradox, since
there is no rain in Egypt at anytime, as is well
known : though modern travellers do testify that rain
occasionally falls. But the sense of the place is,
there shall be nothing analogous to rain, i. e. no over-
flowing of the Nile, to produce the usual fecundity.
But the difficulty might be obviated, by supposing
that the prophet meant, that no rains would fall in
Ethiopia, so as to produce the inundation of the Nile
in Egypt.

Grainger says, in Lower Egypt it rains much and
often ; in Middle, seldom ; in Upper, not at all.

Amos vii. 6, to drop the word; is to prophesy, the
metaphor being taken from the symbol of rain or dew.
See Ezek. xx. 46, and xxi. 2 ; also Micah ii. 6, 11.

;In 2 Peter ii. 17, talse teachers are called "wells*
without water."

348 RAIN.....;RAINBOW.

lii Ps. Ixxii. 6, the blessings of Christ's coming are
described as rain. And Homer, H. 4/, v. 597, com-
pares the exultation of joy in a man's mind, to the
morning dew reviving the corn.
Agreeably to this, the Oneirocritics explain the
symbol of rain or dew, of all manner of good things.
They say, a fine gentle sunshiny rain is the symbol of
a general good; according to which, the Psalmist
says, " Thou O God sentest a gracious rain upon
thine inheritance, to refresh it, when it was weary,"
Ps. Ixviii. 9. Hence among the Egyptians, the pro-
phet carried in his hand, as a symbol of his office, in
solemn processions, a pitcher, as being the disposer
of learning, which is as water, rain, or dew to the
soul.

A tempestuous shower may be the symbol of war.
Thus Pindar compares war to a shower, Isthm. Od. 6.
And Hannibal compares Fabius Maximus, hovering
on the hills to avoid a battle, and afterwards coming
down to snatch the victory out of his hands, to a
cloud on the top of a hill, breaking out afterwards in-
to a shower, with storms and flashes. Plutarch on
Fabius.

RAINBOW. The rainbow was instituted by God
himself, as the symbol or sign of his covenant with
mankind after the flood, wherein he had destroyed
the whole human race, except one family.

By the rainbow, as a symbol or token of the cove-
nant, he promised not to destroy the earth any more
by the waters of the flood, and that upon the sight of
it, he would be mindful of his promise ; Gen. ix.
13-17-

RAINBOW. 349

So that whilst this world lasts, it will be a token of
God's reconciliation with mankind ; and consequently
that he will not bring them wholly under his anger,
to destroy them.

So that in general, it is a symbol of God's willing-
ness to receive men into favour again.

The common bow is a symbol of war and victory.
But the rainbow has two notable properties, which
make it fit to be a symbol of peace. For,
. 1st, Its rundle or part which should look towards the
object aimed at, is always turned from the earth, there-
by shewing, that it aims not at men, as we know that
the pointing of the sword downwards, is a token of
submission or surrender.

2d, It has no string, which shews that the master
will not shoot ; so that a bow unbent, or without a
string, is a proper symbol of peace and friendship.

Hence the rainbow, however it appears, is, accord-
ing to Artemidorus, 1. 2. c. 39, always accounted
good to them that are in great poverty, or other ill
circumstances.

And all this is suitable to the natural properties of
the rainbow, for it never appears but when there is a
gentle rain with the sun shining, which kind of rain
is never known to do any harm, but much good.
(See Daubuz, from whom these particulars are bor-
rowed.)

When the Jews behold the rainbow they bless God,
who remembers his covenant, and is faithful to his
promises. And the tradition of this its designation
to proclaim comfort to mankind, was strong among
the heathen ; for, according to the mythology of the

350 RAINBOW^

Greeks, the rainbow was the daughter of Wonder, " a
sign to mortal men," as Homer calls it, H. 1 1. 1. '27,. 28,

w Reflected various light, and arching bowed,
Like colour'd rainbows o'er a showery cloud,
Jove's wondrous bow, of three celestial dyes,
Placed as a sign to man amid the skies."

Iris, or the rainbow, in Hebrew keshet, was regarded
as. a ; goddess, and upon its appearance, was viewed as
the messenger of the celestial deities ; and that not
.only by the/Greeks and Romans, but also by the in-
.habitants of Peru in South America, when the Spa-
niards came thither. The Abbe Lambert! tells us,
" The Peruvians paid great honours to the rainbow,
as well for the beauty of its. colours, as because they
proceeded from the sun, 1 and it .was for this reason
the incas, or sovereigns of Peru, took it for their de-

vice."

Plutarch says, " The Greeks made Iris the daughter
of Thaumas, or Wonder, because men admired or
wondered at her." So Cotta, the Academician in
Cicero de Nat. Deor. 1. 3. 20, quoted by Parkhurst,
says, " For this reason the rainbow is said to be sprung
from Thaumas, because it has an admirable form."

According to Homer, H. 17, v. 547, the purple
rainbow is spread out from heaven to mortal eye by
.Jove,

" As when high Jove, denouncing future woe,
O'er the dark clouds extends his purple, bow,
(In sign of tempests from the troubled air,
; Or from the rage of man, destructive war),
The drooping cattle dread the impending akies,

And from his half till'd field, the labourer flies."

>- "

. An apocryphal writer has thus beautifully described
it, Ecclesiasticus, Ixiii. 12.

RAINBOW......RAM. 351

" Look upon the rainbow, and praise Him who made it,
: Very beautiful it is in the brightness thereof ;
It compasseth the heaven about with a glorious circle,
And the hands of the Most High have bended it."

There is a reference to the rainbow, though, not
named, in Isaiah liv. 9, 10.

. Ezek. i. 28, " As the appearance of the bow which
is in the cloud in the day of rain, so was the appear-
ance of the brightness round about."

Rev. iv. 3, " There was a rainbow round about the
throne, in appearance like an emerald."

Rev-.x. 1, " And I saw another mighty angel come
down from heaven, clothed with a. cloud, and a rain-
bow was upon his head."

These three passages correspond with, and reflect
upon each other. The rainbow in all of them is the
designed token of God's covenant and mercy, and of
his faithful. remembrance of his promise.

RAM. In the symbolical .language, any horned
beast may signify a king or monarch, because of the
horns which denote power.

So a. ram is the symbol of a plain monarch or
prince ; but other horned beasts are to be explained
with some adjuncts ; as a goat signifies, according to
the interpreters, a fool-hardy fighting prince. And
so Darius is represented in Daniel's vision, as a ram ;
whilst Alexander, the most furious and rash of all
warriors, is figured by a goat. .

So wild beasts, . *, with horns, signify tyrants.
In several parts of Scripture the! word "VJf, which
signifies a. ram, is taken for a prince+as in the Song
of Moses, in. Exod. xv. 15, ;the rams, or mighty men
.of Moab, is, in the Septuagint, thejw-zMees of the

352 RAM RAZOR REED.

Moabites. And this is plainly from the metaphor,
for the prince is the ram of the flock or people. See
Ps. Ixxx. 1 ; Ixxviii. 71 9 72.

RAZOR. Isaiah vii. 20, " Jehovah shall shave
by the hired razor."

To shave with the hired razor the head, the feet,
and the beard, is an expression highly parabolical ; to
denote the utter devastation of the country from one
end to the other, and the plundering of the people
from the highest to the lowest, by the Assyrians, whom
God employed as his instrument to punish the Jews.
See Lowth's note on the place, and Ezekiel v. 1.

See under Hair.

REED, the emblem of fragility and insecure sup-
port.

Egypt is compared to the staff of a broken reed,
Isa. xxxvi. 6.

Ezekiel has the same image in ch. xxix. 7,

" All the inhabitants of Egypt shall know that I am Jehovah,
Because they have been a staff of reed to the house of Is-
rael,

When they took hold of thee with thine hand,
Thou wast crushed, and didst tear all their shoulder,
When they leaned on thee, thou wast broken,
And didst strain all their loins."

It also denotes inconstancy and fickleness, as being
easily moved by the air, Matt. xi. 7>

Afflicted and contrite persons are compared to a
bruised reed, Isa. xlii. 3. Such persons the Saviour
would rather heal than discourage.

The reed was in ancient times used as a pen, 3
John, verse 13. It was used by fishermen as a rod ;
it was also employed as an instrument to measure
with. It was about ten feet long, strong, and light.

KEED. 353

In Rev. xi. 1, 2, there is mention made of such, and
the representation seems to be taken from Ezekiel's
vision, ch. xl. in which he beheld a person with a
measuring rod, taking the dimensions of the buildings
of a temple, shewing the prophet, in vision, the model
or plan of a new temple, to encourage the Jews to
faithfulness in their religion, with the hopes of seeing
the temple and true worship of God restored again.

There are two things, says Daubuz, mentioned in
Holy Writ, whereby men may measure, a. line and a
reed.

The line, 73n> habel, implies constantly a divi-
sion and giving of possession into new hands ; because
it is the instrument by which the lands of conquered
nations are divided, as in 2 Sam. viii. 2 ; Lam. ii. 8 ;
Amos vii. 17 ; Isa. xxxiv. 11-17.

In 2 Sam. viii. 2, it is said " he measured them by
line," i,e. he divided the country of the Moabites in-
to several parts, that he might the better know what
towns it was most proper to demolish, and to extir,-
pate the inhabitants .of them. . He used two lines -a
line to put to death, and the fulness of a line to keep
alive. The fulness of a line seems to denote a very
large tract of country. : See Chandler's life of David,
quoted by Parkhurst under ^H-

The line implies also the division of a land into
new lots, supposing a late conquest, and its being di-
vided, to be inherited by new masters, Nahumiii. 10.

But the reed, as it is also used about lands, so it is
chiefly employed about buildings. In Zech. ii. 1-5, a
line is used to measure the whole city. In Ezekiel,
the reed is employed to measure the temple.
. . Profane authors have similar expressions, which

A a

354 REED......HEND.

shew that a measuring reed or line is to take posses-
sion of the things measured. And hence from JTJp,
a cane or reed, comes JTJp, kene, to acquire or pos-
sess. . . . . . ' . : . '

This use of a line or reed explains the Kara? .or
rule upon which Paul argues, "2 Cor. x. 13, 16 ; the
said rule signifying those churches to which he had
the sole right by first occupation. " But we will not
boast of things without our measure, but according to
the measure of the rule which God hath distributed
to us, a measure to reach even unto you," verse 16 ;
and not to boast in another man's line of things made
ready to our hand. Seerthe whole passage.

A golden reed for measuring < denotes that what is
measured by it shall.be glorious said permanent.

REND. To rendlthe garments was,; in eastern
countries and among 'ancient nations, a symbolical
action, expressive of sorrow, fear, or contrition.

Many instances may be seen in the Sacred Wri-
tings, viz. Judges xi. 35 ; Esther iy. 1 ; Gen. xliv. 13 ;
Matt. xxvi. 65 ; Ezra ix. 5 ; Job i. 20 ; Jer. xxxvi. 24 ;
2 Chron. xxxiv. 27.
See also Virgil, Mn. 12,

: " It scissa veste Latinus,

Conjugis attonitus fatis, urbisque ruina."

Thus Seneca in his Octavia, v. 328,

" Scindit vestes Augusta suas,
' : Laceiatqne comas. 11 ' . , '

Joel ii. 13, "Rend your hearts, and not your gar-
ments," in allusion to this custom. But the phrase
here is a Hebraism, meaning, rend your hearts rather
than your garments ; or, rend your hearts, and not
your garments' only: For the prophet does not for-

REND BEST. 355

bid the external appearances of mourning ; but he
cautions them against a merely hypocritical shew of
sorrow, and exhorts them to cherish that broken and
contrite spirit, which is acceptable in the sight of
God. So in Deut. x. 16, " Circumcise the foreskin
of your heart." And Hosea vi. 16, " I desired mercy
and not sacrifice ;" i. e. I love the exercise of mercy
rather than sacrifice, as the very next words plainly
shew, " and the knowledge of God more than burnt-
ofierings." A somewhat similar form of expression
we have in Rom. vi. 17, " God be thanked that ye
were the servants of sin," &c. ; i. e. God be praised,
that though ye once were the servants of sin, yet now
ye have obeyed, &c.

Rending the garments was sometimes expressive
of different passions. Thus in Dion Cassius, the
consul Paulus rends his garment through indignation.
Caesar does the same when about to appease the mul-
titude; Numbers also, in heathen history, upon the
loss of their friends. Augustus rends his garment at
the proposal of the dictatorship ; and he is said to
have done the same on hearing of the defeat of Va-
rus.

REST, like sleep, is sometimes used as the symbol
of death. Thus :

Rev. xiv. 13,

" Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord,
That; they may rest from their labours."

Ps.lvii. 2,

" He shall go in peace, he shall rest in his bed,

. Even, the perfect man, he that walketh in the straight path."

Job iii. 13,

356 REST......RESURRECTION.

" For now should I have Iain still, and been quiet, '
I should have slept, then had I been at rest,
With kings and counsellors of the earth," &c.

Dan. xii. 13,

" But go thy way. till the end be ;

For thou shalt rest and. stand in thy lot at the end of the days."

Compare Job xi. 18 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 15 ; Rev. vi.
9 ; Acts ii. 26, &c.

This phrase is common on Jewish monuments for
the dead : " May his rest be in the garden of Eden,
with the other just men of the world" May his ;soul
rest in peace till the Comforter come. And one Epi-
taph is to i this effect: " This stone which I have
placed is a monument for the remains of Rabbi Elia-
kim, who was buried on the day before the feast of
the Passover, in the 95th year of his ministry.
May his. rest be in the garden of Eden with other
just men. Amen, amen, amen. Selah." :

Herodian has an expression of similar import, 1. 1,
cap. 4, 8. " When he had survived one single day
and night, he went to rest,'' '*nvva-[o. See Virgil,
Mn. 10, v. 745,

" Olli dura quies oculos, et ferreus urget
Somnus."

And Mneid, 6, v. 372,

" Sedibus ut saltern placidis in morte quietcam.^

And so some of Grater's inscriptions : " Et quieti
aeternae, M. Aulini Antoni," Vet. Leg. 35, &c.
And, " Quorum corpora virginea heic cohdita sunt
ad bene quiescendwm?

RESURRECTIONr when used symboiically, sig-
nifies, according to the Oriental Interpreters, a reco-
very of such rights and liberties as have been taken

RESURRECTION......RIGHT-HAND. 357

away, and a deliverance from war, persecution, afflic-
tion, and bondage. .

What is said in Ezekiel xxxvii. 11-14, is conform-
able to these notions, the resurrection there spoken
of being to be understood as there explained, of a de-
liverance of the Jews from thraldom and captivity,
and a restoration of them to their own lands. For
when resurrection is spoken of a political body, it is
to be understood proportionally of a political resur-
rection of that body in the like power.

Paul uses the same phrase in the same meaning,
Rom. xi. 15, " What shall the receiving of them be

bat life from the dead."

And Isaiah in ch. xxvi. 19, says :

, " My dead shall live ; my deceased shall rise," &c.
Under this image predicting the deliverance of the
people of God from a state of the lowest depression.
It appears from hence (as Lowth observes), con-
trary to the notion of Warburton in his Divine Lega-
tion, that the doctrine of the resurrection from the
dead was at that time a popular and common doctrine,
for an image which is assumed in order to express
any thing in the way of allegory, whether poetical or
prophetical, must be an image commonly known and
understood, otherwise it will not answer the purpose
for which it is assumed.

And. so the Latin authors have used the word re-
surgo, as appears from Ovid, Fasti. 1. 1, v. 523 ;
Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. 15, c. 32 ; and Terence, Hecyr.
act; 5, scene 4, v. 12.

RIGHT-HAND. Lifting it up denotes swearing.
See Gen. xiv. 22; Exod. vi. 8 ; Dan. xii. 7 ; Rev.
x. 5, 6, and other places,

358 RIGHT-HAND...... RIVER.

Among! the Jews, the juror held up his right-hand
towards heaven, which explains a. r passage : in Ps.
cxliv;8, " .'. '--' ' ." ':":': : . ''

** Whose mouth speaketh-vanity, ' '

. And 'their right-hand is a right-hand of falsehood."

The same form is retained in Scotland still, and is
allowedly law to the Seceders in Ireland.
RIVER, may be considered: in several views.

1. In respect of its original, and return thither.
Eccl. i. 7, " All the rivers run into the sea, yet the
sea is not full : to the place from whence the rivers
come, thither they return again."

According to this consideration, the sea being a
symbol of the extent of the jurisdiction or empire of
any potentate, rivers will signify any emissary pow-
ers from thence, whether armies or provincial magis-
trates, or what agents abroad soever, that are under
this chief power, and so act in reference to it. These
may, according to exact analogy, be called rivers, be-
cause both themselves and their affairs have recourse
to the main sea, the amplitude of that jurisdiction
to which they belong.

The Oneirocritics say, in ch. 278, " The sea is the
symbol of a great king. And as all rivers run into
the sea, so the wealth of the world flows to him."
And again, " New rivers running into the sea sig-
nify new revenues accruing to the king or kingdom
from distant nations."

2. A river may be considered in respect of its
rising, overflowing, and drowning the adjacent parts;.
And in this view it is the symbol of the invasion of
an army. Thus, in Isa. viii. 1, God's bringing upon
the Jews the waters of the rivers, signifies the war-

RIVER. 359

like expedition of the Assyrians against the Jews.
The symbol is used in several other places, as in Isa.
xxviii. 2 ; lix. 19 ; Jer. xlvi. 7, 8 ; xlvii. 2 ; Amos ix.
5 ; Nahum i. 8. And in Dan. ix. 26, flood is imme-
diately explained by war. So Plutarch compares
Hannibal's expedition into Italy to a torrent. Ho-
race, 1. 4, Od.- 14, compares .Tiberius driving the ene-
mies to an overflowing river. And Virgil, Mn. 7,
v. 228, speaks of the fall of Troy under the similitude
. of a deluge. ,

And in Artemidorus, 1, 2, c. 27, where the symbol
is adapted to private life, a troubled and violent
river running into a house, and carrying off" or remo-
ving the moveables therein, denotes an enraged ene-
my."

On Isaiah viii. 7, above referred to, the . note of
Bishop Lowth is very pertinent. " The gentle "wa-
ters of Siloah, a small fountain and brook just with-
out Jerusalem, which supplied a pool within the city
for the use of the inhabitants, is an apt emblem of
the state of the kingdom and house of David, much
reduced in its apparent strength, yet supported by
the blessing of God; and is finely contrasted with
the waters, of the Euphrates, great, rapid, and impe-
tuous, the image of the Babylonian empire, .which
God threatens to bring down, like a mighty flood,
upon all these apostates of both kingdoms, as a pun-
ishment for their manifold iniquities, and their . con-
temptuous disregard of his promises." The brook
. and the river are put for the kingdoms to which they
belong, and the different states of which respectively
they .most aptly represent. Juvenal, inveighing
against the corruption of Rome by the importation of

360 RIVER

Asiatic, manners, says, with great elegance, that the
Orontes has been long discharging itself into the

'

- " Jampridem Syrus. in Tiberim defluxit Orontes. ;"

And Virgil, to express the submission of some of
the eastern countries to the Roman arms, says, that
the waters of Euphrates now flowed more humbly and
gently:

" Euphrates ibat jam mollior undis;" JEN.8.7%6.

The prophet adds, " Even to the neck shall he
reach." He compares Jerusalem to the head in the
human body : as when the waters come up to a man's
neck, he is very near drowning, for a little increase
of them would go over his head ; so the king of As-
syria coming up to Jerusalem, was like a flood reach-
ing to the neck,- the whole country was overflowed,
and the capital was in imminent danger. According-
ly the Chaldee renders " reaching to the neck," by
" reaching to Jerusalem."

3. A river may be considered as the barrier of a
.'nation or kingdom. And in this respect, if a river
or sea be dried up, it is a symbol of ill to the land
adjoining. It signifies that its enemies will easily
make a conquest thereof, when they find no water to
stop their passage.

So Jordan was dried up to give the Israelites pas-
sage and possession of the Holy Land. So Isaiah, xliv.
27,' speaking of the conquest of Cyrus, and the de-
struction of the Babylonian monarchy, has these
words, " That saith to the deep, Be dry, and I will
dry up thy rivers." - - '

The prophet Zechariah, ch. x. 11, explains the
symbol:

RIVER. 361

. " And he shall pass through the sea with distress (unto it ),
And shall smite the waves in the sea,
And all the depths of the river (Nile) shall be dried up,
And the pride of Assyria shall be brought down,
And the sceptre of Egypt shall depart."

See to the same purpose Isa. xi. 15, 16, and ch.
xix. 5, 6.

4. A river may be considered in respect of the
clearness, coolness, and excellent taste of its water,
and of its usefulness in watering the grounds, and
making them verdant and fertile. And in this view
a river may become the symbol of the greatest good.
Hence, in the Oneirocritics, " to dream of drinking
of the pure, clear water of a river, denotes an obtain-
ment of joy and happiness by means of a great man."

The Heathen, in order to represent the universal
power and beneficence of Jupiter, used the symbol of
a river flowing from his throne ; and to this the Syco-
phant in Plautus alludes (Trium, act 4, sc. 2, v. 98)>
in his saying that he had been at the head of that
river:

" Ad caput amnis, quod de coelo exoritur, sub solio Jovis."

But with God only is the fountain of life (Ps. xxxvi.
8, 9)> from whom proceeds a river of .pleasures, re-
presenting the comforts and gifts of the Holy Spirit.

And therefore, in relation to private persons re-
ceiving the Holy Spirit, to their own joy, and to the
advantage of others, our Saviour says, John vii. 38,
" He who believeth on me, as Scripture saith, shall
prove a cistern, whence rivers of Irving water shall
flow."

And in relation to all the inhabitants of the New
Jerusalem, the abundance and inexhaustible fund of

362 RIVER ROBE.

their happiness is described in Rev. xxii. 1, by their
having " a river of life, clear as crystal, proceeding
from the throne of God and of the Lamb." As .the
first paradise is represented as watered by a river,
that went out of Eden, to water the country, and as
Ezekiel, in his prophetic vision of a new city and
temple, represents water in great plenty, flowing from
the house or temple, so it is here. Water being
necessary to the support of life, contributing to re-
freshment, ornament, and delight, is elegantly made a
figure to express the glorious and happy immortality
of all true Christians in the heavenly state.

That rivers and streams are used as symbols of the
Holy Spirit, may be proved by reference to Isa. xxxv.
6, 7> compared with ch. xxxii. 15; Joel iii. 18; Isa.
xliv. 3 ; Ezek. xlvii. 1-7 ; Ps. Ixv. 10, 11 ; Ps. Ixviii.
10; Zech. xiii. 1; Ps. Ixxii. 6.

A Jewish writer says, " As our first Redeemer
(Moses) produced a well (Num. xx. 17), so our last
Redeemer shall produce waters, as it is said (Joel ii.
10), " And a fountain shall go forth from the house of
Jehovah, and shall water the valley of Shittim."

That rivers were held in veneration by the heathen,
is well known : witness the Nile by the Egyptians,
of which coins remain to this day, with the inscrip-
tion, " Deo Sancto Nilo" And Seneca, in his Epist.
4, says, " Magnorum fluminum capita veneramur, su-
bita et ex abdito vasti amnis eruptio aras habet."

ROBE. The robe and baldrick, or girdle, were
the ensigns of power and authority, worn by kings,
princes, and men in high station.

The high priest wore a peculiar one, mentioned in
Exod. xxviii. 31.

ROBE .ROD. 363

David was clothed .with a robe, 1 Chron. xv. 27-

The king of Nineveh, in a time of public repent-
ance, put away his robe from him ; Jonah iii. 6.

Jesus was invested with a scarlet robe by the in-
sulting Jews, as a mock emblem of royal dignity ;
Matt, xxvii. 28, Luke xxiii. 11.

Ezekiel says, concerning Tyre, ch. xxiv. 16,

" Shall not all the princes of the sea come down from their

thrones,

And lay aside their robes,
And put off their embroidered garments ?"

as marks of humiliation and depression.

The redeemed are said' to be clothed with white
robes, Rev. vi. 11, as expressive of the favour and
acceptance of God, and as marks of approbation, ho-
nour, and dignity $ for such garments were usually
sent by princes as presents, and as tokens of royal
favour, granted only on special occasions. See Luke
xv. 22 ; see also 2 Sam. xiii. 18, where kings' daugh-
ters are said to be so apparelled.

See under Garment.

ROD. It signifies primarily a shoot or branch of
a tree, whence it came to be used for. a tribe issuing
out from a patriarch, as a branch from its stock, and
afterwards for any rod or staff, whether of punish-
ment or authority ; and hence it has an appropriate
signification, according to the purpose to which it is
applied. A particular staff or sceptre is that used by
a sovereign magistrate in token of his supreme autho-
rity. Sometimes it means the rod or staff which the
herdsman or shepherd carried in his hand, and kept
his cattle in order with.

364 BOD.

As a sceptre, it occurs in Ps. xlv; ;7;; Ps. ex. 2;
Isa* xiv. 5 ; Ezek. xix. 11-14:. Compare Ps. ii. 9-

In the pastoral sense it occurs, Ps. xxiii. 4 ; Ezek.
xx. 37; Micahvii.15; Levit. xxvii. 32.

As the symbol of correction, it is used in 2 Sam.
vii. 14 ; Job. ix. 34, and xxi. 9. " .

In Gen. xlix. 10, the sceptre seems to denote, not
regal authority, but tribual jurisdiction, or that ex-
ercised by the head of a tribe. Hence used for the
ruler himself, Gen. xlix. 16. Compare verse 28 and
2 Sam. vii. 7 with 1 Chron. xvii. 6.

Besides all these, there is the measuring rod, for
marking out portions of land to be purchased or in-
herited. Thus, Jer. x. 16, and li. 19> "Israel is call-
ed the rod of God's inheritance." Every nation had
its supposed tutelary deity, who might with propriety
be styled its portion, on account of the peculiar rela-
tion that subsisted between them. The "portion of
Jacob," therefore, is the same as the God of Jacob,
who had marked Israel out for his own possession, as
with a measuring rod, and to whom the name of Je-
hovah belonged.
Ezek. xx. 37}

" And I will cause you to pass under the rod,
And I will bring you under the chastisement of the cove-
nant;" , .

i. e. the chastisement due to you for breaking my
covenant. But there may be an allusion here to the
custom of numbering flocks and herds, by striking
them with a rod, and of thus severing some for pre-
servation and some for slaughter. -

Ezek. xxi. 10, " It contemneth the rod of my son,"

ROD. . 365

&c. This obscure passage appears better rendered
thus: '.....

" Alas, the sceptre of my son is destroyed ;
It despiseth every tree."

By my sow, meaning the people of God, who are so
called, Exod. iv. 22, Hosea xi. 1, and referring the
event to Nebuchadnezzar, who took away the sceptre
and overturned the kingdom.

In Isa. x. 5, the Assyrian is called "the rod of
God's anger." In Jer. i. 11, a rod of an almond tree
is explained by the Targum, of a king hastening to
destroy, because the sheked, almond tree, is a hasty
budder, having its name from sheked, to hasten, or to
do evil, or to watch for that purpose, as in Isa. xxix.
20.

Amongst the pagans, magicians and augurs in their
divinations made use of a rod, sceptre, or staff, which
they pretended was given them by some god for that
purpose.

And thus, in opposition to the rods of the magi-
cians, which they used in their enchantments, God
commanded Moses to make use of his rod or walking
staff in the working of miracles in Egypt, and which
is therefore called, in Exod. xvii. 9, the rod of God.
See more in Daubuz on this subject, art. Rod.

The Egyptian hieroglyphic of a sceptre with an
eye on the top of it denoted a wise king or govern-
ment.

In Ezek. xxxvii. 16, a. rod, from its name being the
same with that of a tribe, is used symbolically to sig-
nify the tribe of Judah, with all its adherents; as
another, with the name of Ephraim, to denote all the
apostate Israelites.

366 ROOT.... ..SACRIFICE.

RQOT is the producer and bearer of a tree, and
so denotes the origin from whence a person has his
rise or bein^-

Thus Christ, who, in respect of his human nature,
is the offspring r , the son and successor of David in
the government of the Jews, is also, in respect of his
divine nature, the root of David, the Lord from whom
David received his government. See Rev. v. 5, xxii.
16 ; Isa. xi. 10, liii. 2 j Rom. xv. 12.

It is also put for the origin or first principle of any
disposition or passion. See 1 Tim. vi. 10 ; Deut.
xxix. 18 ; Heb. xii. 15.

TO take root, or to become rooted, denotes per-
manency and multiplication ; Job. v. 3 ; Ps.lxxx. 10 ;
Isa. xxvii. 6, &c.

The withering of the root, on the contrary, signi-
fies destruction ; Job. xviii. 16 ; Isa. v. 24 ; Hosea
ix. 16.

Job xix. 28 is thus rendered by Dwell, preferably
to the common version :

" Surely, ye shall say, why have ye persecuted him ?
Hath any ground of charge been found in him ?"

SACRIFICE is put for slaughter in several, pas-
sages, among others in Ezek. xxxix. 17,

" Come to my sacrifice which I make for you."
This bold imagery is founded on the custom of invi-
tations to feasts after sacrifices. See Gen. xxxi. 54 ;
1 Sam xvi. 3 ; Zeph. i. 7- Compare Isa. xxxiv. 6,
which Ezekiel seems to have imitated, and Rev. xix.
17, .18, where we find Ezekiel's animated, address to
the .birds of prey, and , even some of his expressions.
The prophet has indulged the bent of his genius in a
sublime amplification. By the rams, bulls, and he-

SACRIFICE.... ..SALT. 367

goats, in v. 18, of Ezekiel, are naturally expressed
kings, princes, and tyrants ; and the table of God, in
v. 20, is the field covered with dead bodies, the place
of the slaughter of Magog.

In James v. 5, "Ye have nourished your hearts, as
in a day of slaughter," (properly, sacrifice) ; there is
the same allusion to a feast after a sacrifice.

SALT. Salt hinders .flesh from corruption, and
makes it keep, and is therefore the symbol of incor-
ruption, eternity, and perpetual duration.

Thus, in Num. xviii. 19, "All the heave-offerings
of the holy things, which the children of Israel offer
unto the Lord, have I given thee, .and thy sons, and
thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever : It is
a covenant of salt for ever." See Home's Introd. v.
3, p. 192.

So again, 2 Chron. xiii. 5, " The Lord God of Is-
rael gave the kingdom to David for ever by a cove-
nant of salt."

And so Lofs wife, Gen. xix. 26, " became a pillar
of salt," i.e. she. was overtaken by the miraculous
sako-sulphureous shower, and thereby fixed and in-
crusted like a statue ; and, being thus changed, sym-
bolically shewed that she was a standing or perpetual
monument of divine vengeance.

Agreeably: to this is our Lord's discourse in Mark
ix. 48, 49, who says, that the torments of the wicked
shall be like that of those who are gnawed by a per-
petual worm, in reference to their conscience; and
that they shall be tormented also by an unquenchable
fire, in reference to their body. He then proceeds,
" for every one shall be salted with fire ;" i. e. every

368 SALT.

one shall be salted or preserved by that very fire
which torments him. .

Salt is the emblem of barrenness : " All places," as
Pliny observes, "where salt is found, are barren arid
produce nothing." Deut. xxix. 23, " The whole land
thereof shall be brimstone, and burning salt ; it is not
sown, nor bears, nor any herb grows therein, like the
overthrow of Sodom," &c. The land surrounding
the Dead Sea is strongly impregnated with acrid salt,
and produces no plants : the very air is loaded with
it, and cannot suit vegetation, " whence," says Volney,
"that aspect of death which reigns around the lake."
See Judges ix. 45, and Zeph. ii. 9 ; Ezek. xlvii. 11 ;
Jer. xvii. 6. The passage in Ezekiel seems to be
applied allegorically, meaning, that some shall reject
the Gospel, and some receive it without obeying it.
And so in Ps. cvii. 34, according to the original, " a
fruitful land into saltness."

Salt is the symbol of hospitality ; see Ezra iv. 14,
" Now, for as much as we are maintained from the
king's palace," literally, " we are salted with the salt
of the palace." Salt, being a wholesome and neces-
sary ingredient in human diet, has always been, and
still is, among the Eastern nations the symbol of hos-
pitality and friendship ; see Mede's Works, p. 370 ;
Herbelqt, Harmer^ Cudworth, &c. cited by Parkhurst,
Heb. Lex. p; 380. Diogenes Laertius, in his Life of
Pythagoras, tells us that, concerning salt, it was his
maxim that it ought to have its place upon our tables
as a memento of justice and integrity, it being pre-
servative of whateveriiit lays hold upon, 'and made
out of the purest materials, water and the sea.

SA.LT......SAND. 369

- See Levit. ii. 13, where God prescribes that salt
shall always constitute a part of the offerings made
to him.

Salt, on account of its use in preserving food, and
rendering it palatable, was anciently made the em-
blem of wisdom and virtue. In allusion to this, Paul
ordered the Colossians, ch. iv. 6, to season their speech
with salt, that it might be preserved from the corrup-
tion, condemned in Eph. iv. 29. Macknight thinks
the Apostle might possibly refer to those elegant
turns in conversation which from the Athenians took
the name of attic salt.

Salt is the emblem of peace ; Mark ix. 50, where
the copulative may be considered as exegetical:
"Have salt in yourselves, that is, have peace one
with another/' Being used at meals, and in sacri-
fices, it became a sort of bond of union, and hence a
symbol of peace. Isidore says, Aietv 3-avptx^a, x. r. A.
" I wonder very much how it happens, that robbers,
who brandish their naked swords and arm themselves
against those who have never injured them, after par-
taking of their salt, cease to be robbers."

SAND, as being an aggregate body of countless
particles, is naturally employed as the symbol of mul-
titudes. . -..,-.

Considered as the barrier of the sea merely, it is
the symbol of hope and safety, such as the ship-
wrecked ' mariner experiences when he reaches the
shore.

God graciously promised Abraham that his pos-
terity should be without number, as the sand ; Gen.
xxii. 17, xxxii. 12.

And the quantity of corn which Joseph collected

Bb

370 SAND......SCORPION.

in Egypt is compared to the sand of the sea; Gen.
xli.49.

And Hosea, speaking of the restoration from cap-
tivity, ch. i. 10, says,

" Yet shall the number of the sons of Israel he as the sand of

the sea,
Which cannot he measured or numbered."

Horace calls Archytas

" Marls et terras numeroque carentis arenas
Mensorem." '

Jeremiah, v. 22, beautifully describes the power of
God, as displayed in his making the sand a boundary
to the ocean,

" Will ye not fear me, saith Jehovah,
Will ye not tremble at my presence ?
Who have appointed the sand a bound to the sea,
A perpetual ordinance, and it shall not go beyond it ;
Though.it toss itself about, yet. shall it not prevail;
Though the waves thereof roar, yet shall they not go.beyond
it." . ..-',.

Sand, as symbolizing a multitude, is used by Pin-
dar and others. And in Euripides, gfyiTo<, the
numberless, we the common people who are of no
account. And Homer employs the same, H. 2, 307,
and H. 9, 385.

Sand is a .well-known characteristic of extensive
desarts. See Strabo, b. 16, p. 522; and Lucian,
Opp. T. 2, p. 841.

SCORPION; is explained by the Oneirocritics, of
a wicked enemy, or mischievous contemptible person.
'' For the scorpion is constantly shaking his tail to
strike,; and the torment caused by his sting is very
.grievous." ^,

Hence Ezekiel, c. ii. 6, compares the wicked Israel-
ites to scorpions. And the author of the book of

SCORPION. SEA. 371

Ecclesiasticus, in ch. xxvi. v. 7i compares a man that
hath a shrew to his wife, to one that taketh hold of a
scorpion., v. ,

Scorpions, as well as locusts, hurt only for five
months; Rev. ix. 10.

The scorpion, on some coins of Hadrian, is said to
denote Africa, either in reference to that country as
the birth-place of multitudes of these creatures, or to
the wiles and subtilties of the Carthaginians, as being
pernicious, and as engaging in wars. It is under-
stood by divines to be an emblem of the evil spirit,
as in Luke x. 19> where serpents and scorpions, and
all the power of the enemy are mentioned, in con-
nexion with Satan falling from heaven, and with the
subjection of the spirits or demons to the Apostles.

SEA, in the Hebrew language, is any collection of
waters, as in Gen. i. 10, " The collections of waters
he called seas." So likewise what St Matthew calls
a*x<r<ret, sea, ch. viii. 24, is by Luke viii. 23, called
Atftni, a lake.

The Colchi also, as Bochart proves, called lakes
by the name of sea. And Aiftvn, lake, in Hesiod
stands for the ocean. (Theog. v. 365).

A sea, clear and serene, denotes an orderly collec-
tion of men in a quiet and peaceable state.

A sea troubled and tumultuous, denotes a collec-
tion of men in motion and war.

Either way, the waters signifying people, and
the sea being a collection of waters the sea becomes
the symbol of people, gathered into one body politic,
kingdom, or jurisdiction, or united in one design.

And therefore, the Oneirocritics say, in ch. 178,
" If any dream he is master of the sea, he will be en-

372 SEA.

tire successor in the whole kingdom." And again,
" If a king see the sea troubled by a wind from a
known quarter, he will be molested by some nation
from' that quarter. /But if he see the sea calm, he
will enjoy his kingdom in peace." :

1 And in the same chapter, the sea and deep are in-
terpreted of a great king. '.--.'
' Agreeably to this, in Dan. vii. 2, the great sea
agitated by the four winds, is a comprehension of
several kings or kingdoms in a state of war ; one
kingdom fighting against another to enlarge their
dominions.

See under Fishes.

In Ps. Ixv. 7> these two are classed together, shew-
ing the analogy :

" Who stilleth.the noise of the seas,
The noise of their waves,
And the tumults of the people" . '

In Jer. li. 42, " The sea is come up over Babylon."

Here the sea is put metaphorically for' a numerous
army, and the overspreading of waters, for the inva-
sion and conquest of the country.

In Isa. Ix. 5, " The riches of the sea shall be poured
in upon thee," is explained by the next line.

" And the wealth of the nations shall come to thee;"
meaning the inhabitants of the islands, and their de-
votedness to the gospel.

Rev iv. 6, " Before the throne there was a sea of
glass like unto crystal ;" an allusion to that which
was in the temple of old, 1 King's vii. 23, and seems
to denote the purity that is required in all who make
a near approach to the presence of God.

SEA. 373

Rev. viii. 9, The third part of the creatures which
were in the seas, and had life, died."

See Ezek. xxix. 3, &c.

Rev. x. 2, " He set his right foot on the sea, and
his left foot on the earth."

As earth and sea make up this terraqueous globe,
so the inhabitants of the earth and sea seem in this
prophecy to mean the inhabitants of this world at
large. See ch. xii. 12, 13. But Sir Isaac Newton
thinks the expression represents the angel standing
with one foot on Asia, and the other on Europe, to
signify that the prophecies he was about to reveal,
would relate to both the empires of the east and west.

Rev. xiii. 1 , " I saw a beast rise up out of the sea ;"
i. e. a new dominion or government, which should
owe its origin to the commotions of the people.

Rev. xv. 2, " I saw a sea of glass, mingled with
fire." Of this, it is difficult to give a satisfactory in-
terpretation.

Rev. xxi. 1, " And there was no more sea;" z. e.
there were no turbulent spirits to disturb the peace
of that happy state for the new heavens and new.
earth merely denote a new order of things, in which
former sorrows and troubles shall no more be remem-
bered.

Vitringa says, " The sea in general, in a mystical
sense, is taken for the world as opposed to the church,
or for .that part of the earth where there is no wor-
ship of the true God, for as the globe is divided into
two parts, earth and sea, so the world is divided into
two parts, that within and thai without the church,
which last comes under .the name of sea, as being in
continual commotion, as incapable of cultivation, as

374 SEA SEALING.

the seat of storms and tempests, and dangerous to
navigate. Hence the wicked are compared to it in
Isaiah Ivii. 20. '>: ^^ --

The same author observes, '-on -Rev. xxi. 1, 2, that
there was no sea in the Newf Jerusalem. ".John saw
there no Pagans or Idolaters," because in that latter
period the whole world will receive the true worship
of God; therefore; the sea, in the mystical sense,
will be abolished, and the whole new world will be
changed into, earth or land.

Ewaldus supposes, that by the earth or land in
Revi x. 2, is meant Judea, and by the sea Gentilism.
And that his posture, with one foot on each, denotes
dominion, lordship, or conquest, since to place the
foot on any one implies this. See Ps. ex. 1; Deut.
xi. 24; Josh, i; 3; 1 Cor. xv. 27, &c. .

Among the ancients, the sea was the symbol of
various matters, l.rOf the world and its vanities, ac-
cording to the Persian proverb, " He who covets this
world's goods, is like one who drinks sea-water; the
more he drinks, the more he increases thirst, .nor
does he cease to drink until he dies." 2. Of calami-
ties and persecutions. Thus, Ps. Ixix. 1, 2, 14, 15 ;
Ps. cxxiv. 4, 5. 3; Of inconstancy.

SEALING. Sealing has several acceptations.

1. It denotes preservation and security. Thus, in
Cant. iv. 12, " A fountain sealed," is a fountain care-
fully preserved from the injuries of weather and
beasts, that its water may be preserved good and
clean. .

In Job xiv. 17, " Sins sealed up in a bag,-" signify
that no sin shall be forgot. And thus, for the greater

SEALING. 375

security, the stone at the mouth of our Saviour's se-
pulchre was sealed with a seal.

2. It denotes also propriety, from the custom of
sealing goods and servants when they were bought,
that it might be known to whom they belonged.

3. Sealing denotes secrecy and privacy ; men seal-
ing up those things which they intend to keep secret.

Thus, a book sealed, Rev. v. 1, is a book whose
contents are secret, and have for a very long time
been so, and are not to be published till the seal be
removed. Horace has used the like symbol, 1. 1, Ep.
20, v. 3.

And in Isa. xxix. 11, "A vision like to a book
sealed/ 7 is a vision not understood.

4. Sealing sometimes signifies completion and per-
fection ; because the putting of the seal to any instru-
ment or writing completes the matter about which
it is, and finishes the whole transaction.

Thus, concerning the king of Tyre, the prophet
Ezekiel says, ch. xxviii. 12, " Thou sealest up the
sum (or measure) full of wisdom and glory ;" that is,
thou lookest upon thyself as having arrived at the
highest pitch of wisdom and glory.

Thus the Arabians call the Koran " the seal of
God's promises," as being, according to them, the
completion or perfection of God's promises ; and
Mahomet, " the seal of the prophets." as being ac-
cording to them the greatest of the prophets, after
whom no more are to follow.

5. Sealing signifies assent, confirmation, and au-
thority, from the use of a seal's being put to decrees,
diplomas, covenants, and wills.

Thus, in Nehem. ix. 39, the princes, the priests,

376 SEALING.

and Levites^ to shew their assent to \tj sealed .the
covenant. And sealing has the same signification in
John iii.. 33. ..: ; ; .

In; Esther viii. S, a writing sealed with the king's
seal, denotes the will and pleasure of the king, and
that .it is unalterable, not to be reversed.

And hence a person sealed, signifies a person au-
thorised and commissioned, as in relation to our Sa-
viour, concerning, his giving that meat which endur-
eth to everlasting life, says John vi. 27, " him hath
God the Father sealed.".

Hence the bearing of a ring or seal is the token of
a high office. .See Gen. xli. 41.

And therefore, in Aristophanes, the giving of a
ring to a person is making him chief magistrate or
high steward ; and the taking away of the ring is the
discharging him of his office. ..,

And to the same purpose speak the Persian and
Indian interpreters in ch. 260, concerning a ring 'or
seal. ; : . .

5. Sealing signifies hindrance and restraint, to put
a cessation to, or stop the effect of any design.
Thus, in Job xxxvii. 7, God is said to seal up the
hand of every man ; . e. to hinder their work by
storms arid wet weather, or to restrain their power.

And so in Job ix. 9, he is said to seal up the stars ;
i. e. to restrain" their influences. .

And thus in JSschylus, Eumer. v. 830. &c., thunder
sealed up, is thunder restrained, not used, or laid
aside'.

In Eph. i. 13j "Ye were sealed with the promised
Holy Spirit,'' there is thought to be an allusion to the
magic rings and seals common amongst the Ephesian

/SEALING SEE. 377

idolaters, used as amulets or charms, and for other
similar purposes, as mentioned by Clemens, Alexan-
drinus, Stromata, lib. 1, and by Lucian Phileps, t. 2,
also by Aristophanes in Phit. The itpsnct y^ftftrx,
or Ephesian letters, were thought to have the same
virtue. To such as these vain securities, the Apos-
tle opposes the sacred seal of the Holy Spirit, as an
earnest of their heavenly inheritance.

SEE. To see is, in several places, a prophetical
expression, shewing the proper work of the Prophets.
For, in 1 Sam. ix. 9> he that was in those days called
a Prophet, was before time called a Seer, and, there-
fore, their inspiration, when it was given them by
symbols, comes under the name of seeing, or vision,
as in Num. xxiv. 4, 16.

And this is the very style of the heathens, as ap-
pears from Euripides and Virgil. (Helen v. 755 ;
jEn.1.6, v. 86, 87.)

Verbs that belong to the human senses are often
put for one another in the best authors. Thus, to
see a voice, is an expression used by the sacred writ-
ers, and by iEschylus. (Exod. xx. 18; Rev. i. 12;
Prometh, v. 21).

Aristophanes uses yiva-xt -m? d-vg*;, taste the door,
instead of feel the door. (Ranae.)

And Petroriius, a nice author as to matters of style,
says, " Necdum libaveram cellulae limen." See also
Lucretius, b.l, v. 645.

The eyes often sympathize with the affections of
the soul, and therefore, to see, in Scripture, frequently
signifies to rejoice or to be grieved, according to the
circumstances of the person affected.

Thus old Simeon, when he saw our Saviour, said,

378 SEE SEPULCHRE.

" Lord, how lettest thou thy servant depart in peace,
according to thy word, for mine eyes have seen thy
salvation ;" i- e. I shall now die in peace and joy, be-
cause I have seen my Saviour.

So, in Ps. Ixiv. 18, " If I regard iniquity in my
heart the Lord will not hear me ;" i. e. if I take de-
light in sin, God will not bless me.

In like manner, as to the affection of sorrow, 2
Kings vii. 2, " Thou shalt see it with thine eyes, but
thou shalt not eat thereof;" i. i. thou shalt have the
sorrow not to enjoy the benefit of it. .

See also 2 Kings xxii.t20 ; Esther viii. 6 ; Ps. cxii.
10 ; : 1 Sam. ii. 33 ; Deut. xxviii. 34. So, in profane
authors, in relation to joy, pascere oculos, to feed the
eyes, signifies to take a delight in seeing : in oculis
gestare, to carry a person in one's eyes, is to love him
dearly, to desire to have him always present.

And in relation to sorrow, a thing done before the
eyes, heightens the grief, as in several places in Ter-
ence and Virgil.

So, in Luke i. 48, " He hath regarded the low es-
tate of his handmaid ;" means, he has taken a delight
in favouring her, so as to account her worthy of the
greatest honour.

And, on the other hand, our seeing God, denotes
the large and clear knowledge we shall have of him,
the inconceivable pleasure of contemplating him,, the
joy of loving, and of being loved by him ; all which
is fitly represented by seeing, sight being of all bur
senses the most noble and refined^

SEPULCHRE occurs several times in Scripture
in a symbolical sense7as in Ps. v. 10, " Their throat

SEPULCHRE. 379

is an open sepulchre ;" and so of the Chaldeans, in
Jer. v. 16,

" Their quiver is an open sepulchre ;
All of them are mighty men."

And our Lord, in Matt, xxiii. 27, compares the
Pharisees to whitened sepulchres, as being hypocrites.

Sepulchres, as he observes, are full of dead men's
bones, and all uncleanness ; and though the Pharisees
outwardly had a show of sanctity, their inward prin-
ciples were evidently unsound and corrupt.

Those who touched the dead, were considered as
polluted ; and hence burying-grounds were generally
without the city, in places remote from the usual
commerce of men. So our Lord's character of the
Pharisees, shows that he considered them as danger-
ous guides in religion. And in Luke xi. 44, he calls
them " graves that appear not," as those of the poor,
no doubt, often were, being concealed with grass and
weeds. See Num. xix. L6. Because the Pharisees
concealed, under a cloak of sanctity, the real abomi-
nations of their hearts, and professed a ^ strict regard
to the: letter of the law, while they were filled with
malice, covetousness, and vain-glory;

In the same chapter, viz. Matt, xxiii. v. 29, he says,
" Ye garnish the sepulchres of the righteous," in
allusion to a custom prevalent among the Greeks, as
well as among: the Jews, of repairing and adorning
the monuments of those who had merited well of
them, or who had suffered an undeserved death.
Thus Homer, D. 16,

" His friends and people, to his future praise,
A marble tomb and pyramid shall raise,
And lasting honours to his ashes give ;
His fiime ('tis all the dead can have) shall live."

380 SEPULCHRE.

And Raphelius produces a passage from Xenophon
to this effect : " If any one do not adorn (the very,
term used in the Gospel) the .sepulchres of -his dead
parents, the State will inquire into it in the investiga-
tion of the Magistrates." And Lucian has the fol-
lowing, " Those who have valuable and lofty monu-
ments on the earth, and columns, and images, and in-
scriptions, are not more honourable in the shades
below than the plebeian dead." All these things
were done " to be seen by men ;" and our Lord
traces them all to the principle of vain ostentation.

" Yet even these bones from insult to protect,

Some frail memorial still erected nigh,
With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd,
Implores the passing tribute of a sigh."

The Jews were in the habit of visiting the sepul-
chres of the dead ; and hence they thought, when
Mary, the sister of Lazarus, went out, that she had
gone to the grave to weep. there. They even erected
temples over the sepulchres, and performed religious
worship therein. Mahomet is said to have execrated
them on this account. The prophet, in his last dis-
ease, from which he never arose, said, " May God
curse the Jews, for they convert the sepulchres of
their prophets into temples." .

As to whitened sepulchres, Dr Shaw observes,
" That tombs among the Moors, with the very walls
of their cupolas and enclosures, are constantly kept
clean, white-washed, and beautified, and! so far con-
tinue to illustrate the expressions of our Saviour. It
is in reference to this that Paul calls Anawa&awhited
wall, Acts xxiii. 3, aff expression which proved pro-
phetical ; for Ananias, after having contributed to the

SEPULCHRE......SERPENT. 381

ruin of his country, by a powerful faction which he
had raised, and which produced many calamities, was
slain after the revolt of the Jews, A.D. 66, with his
brother ; and fell not by the arms of the Romans, but
by another faction of the Jews, which was headed by
his own son." Tillemont, H. E. 1, p. 274.

SERPENT. The symbol of Satan, who is called
the " old serpent, 5 ' Rev. xii. 9-

This symbol occurs frequently in Scripture, viz.
1 Cor. xii. 3, " I fear, as the serpent beguiled Eve
through his subtlety." :

Luke x. 19, 20, " I give you power to tread on
serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the
enemy" &c. " Notwithstanding, in this rejoice not,
that the spirits are subject to you, but," &c.

Rev., xii. 12, " The Devil is come down to you,
having great- wrath."

Rev. xii. 14, " And the woman was nourished for
a time and times, and half a time, from the face of the
serpent"

Rev. xx. 2, " And he laid hold on the dragon, that
old serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound
him a thousand years."

' Hence the phrases, " offspring of vipers," Matt.
iii. 7 ; and " children of the Devil," John viii. 44,
may be considered to be parallel.

The Jews acknowledge the serpent to be the sym-
bol of Satan. In the cabalistic book, entitled Tikkun
Sophar, quoted by Vitringa, Observ. Sacr. Tit. 1,
p. 15, we read, " He said to them, that serpent with
which ye contend, that ye may escape from him, is
the same who hath slain and devoured others, and not
only the first man, but all generations." And Mai-

382 SERPENT. ,

monides, Mor. Nev. p. 2, c. 30, " Sammael (*. e. the
serpent seducing Eve) is no other than Satan himself,
whatever secret that name may signify; he is also
called Nachash, a serpent." .

Those passages of the fathers, in which this symbol
is adverted to, maybe seen in Suicer's Thesaurus,
article Ophis.

It is well known, that the serpent was worshipped
with divine honours among many ancient nations.
See Herodotus, Mian, and others. Sidonius Apolli-
nar. has this passage :

" Magnus Alexander necnon Augustus habentur
Concept! Serpents Deo"

See also the Octavius of Minucius Felix. -
We find many ancient coins with the figure of ser-
pents, and somewhere an altar is exhibited, and a
serpent, to whom Victory is sacrificing. See Span-
heim de usu Numism. ; and Oisel on the same sub-
ject, who has a plate representing a serpent with a
green tree, as if the worship of the serpent had been
derived from the seduction of Eve in the garden.

We learn from the New Testament, that Satan was
considered by our Lord as the " prince of this world,"
John xii. 31 ; and by Paul, as the god of this
world," 2 Cor. iv. 4. In allusion to which, the apos-
tle observes, Eph. vi. 12, " We wrestle not against
flesh and blood (only), but against principalities and
powers, against the rulers of this dark world, against
wicked spirits in high places." And hence idolatry
is termed, in Ps. cvi. 37, a sacrificing their sons and
daughters unto devils-or demons. And the same is
affirmed in Deut. xxxii. 17 ; 1 Cor. x. 20 ; and Rev.
ix. 20. In Ephes. ii. 2, Satan is called the Prince

SERPENT. 383

of the power of the air, the spirit that now worketh
in the children of disobedience ;" and in Heb. ii. 14,
he is said to " have the power of death," from which
men can only be delivered by a Redeemer.

As the head of the serpent is the seat of life, hence
the overthrow of Satan's power is called " bruising or
crushing the serpent's head," Gen. Hi. 15. Rom. xvi.
20, has a plain reference to the same subject. And
this overthrow is attributed to the Messiah, 1 John
iii. 8.

Among the Hebrews, Nachash or Nehash, was the
name of the land serpent, and of that tribe of animals
in general ; the river serpent, crocodile, &c. they called
tenin. Among the Latins, the water snakes were called
angues ; the land snakes, serpentes ; and when these
animals were consecrated, and in temples, dracones,
from which our term dragon. And so Virgil styles
them, when they are said to be hid at the feet of Pal-
las, Mu. 2, v. 225,

" At geminilapsu delubra ad summa dracones
Effiigiunt," & c .

The Egyptians reputed the serpent to be an em-
blem of their god Cneph, by which word they meant
the Demiurgus, or maker of all things. And the
Phoenicians seem to have represented, in their mystic
figures of the serpent, the power by which all things
consist. See Shuckford, vol. iv.

The sharep mentioned by Moses, Numb. xxi. 6, are
nowhere called dragons, but are a species of serpent,
which probably had that name from the heat or burn-
ing pain occasioned by their bite, or from their vivid
fiery colour ; for sharep signifies to burn. See also

384 SERPENT.

Deut. viii. 15. The Septuagint call it " the biting
serpent." It is referred to in Isa. xiv. 29,

" For from the root of the serpent shall come forth a basilisk,
And his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent."

Isa. xxx. 6, .

" The burden of the beasts travelling southward,
Through a land of distress and difficulty,
Whence come forth the lioness and the fierce lion,
The viper and the fiery flying serpent;"

describing the deserts through which the Israelites
passed in their journeys, and which were designed to
be a barrier between them and Egypt. It is remarkable,
that the seraphim, or cherubic emblems, derive their
name from the same root, meaning burning spirits.

The serpent or dragon is employed by the Sacred
writers as the symbol of solitude and desolation ; for
as venomous and loathsome creatures generally hide
themselves in uninhabited places, amidst ruins, reeds,
and rubbish, so, where there is any mention of the
ruin of a city, or the desolation of a province, the
place is said to be a dwelling for dragons. Thus, Isa.
xiii. 22, . f

" " And wolves shall howl to one another in their palaces,
And dragons in their voluptuous pavilions." . .

Similar to what Milton has said, Par. Lost, b. 1 1 ,
1. 750, ,.......

'. '- '" And in their palaces,

Where luxury late reign'd, sea-monsters whelp'd,
And stabled."

Isaiah xxxiv. 13, . . .

" And in her palaces: shall, spring up thorns,
The nettle and the bramble, in her fortresses;
And she shall become a habitation for dragons,
; A court for the daughters of the ostrich."

SERPENT. 385

Jerem. ix. 11,

" And I will reduce Jerusalem into heaps, a den of dragons,
And the cities of Judah will I make a desolation without
inhabitant."

When the opposite picture is intended, that is, a
recovery from desolation, then the following language
is used. Isa. xxxv. 7,

" And the serab, or glowing sand, shall become a pool,
And the thirsty soil bubbling springs ;
And in the haunts of dragons shall spring forth
The grass, with the reed, and the bulrush."

In Psalm cxlviii. 7, amongst, other parts of creation
invited to praise God, we find the following :
" Praise Jehovah, ye dragons, and all deeps !"

Meaning, ye great serpents, and all deep caverns,
where they dwell.

The Hebrew words tenim and tenout, seem some-
times to be applied to an animal of a different species,
though our translators, without discrimination, have
rendered them by dragons in the following passages :
Job xxx. 29 ; Micah i. 8 ; Mai. i. 3. From the noise,
wailing, or whining, ascribed to it by Micah, it more
probably means the jackal, or shakal, which, in the
night, makes a lamentable howling noise, as Pocock,
Shaw, and Bochart remark.

In Jerem. li. 34, Nebuchadnezzar is compared to a
dragon :

" He hath swallowed us up like a dragon, he hath filled his

maw;
From our Eden (or Paradise) he hath cast us out ;"

where there seems to be an allusion to the ejection of
the first human pair from the garden of God's plant-
ing. According to the Oneirocritics, the dragon is
the symbol of a king that is an enemy.

c c

386 SERPENT.

Job xxvi. 13,

" By his spirit he hath garnish'd the heavens,
His hand hath form'd the crooked serpent."

The Septuagint read : Hath killed the rebel dra-
gon.

It is difficult to say to what this applies. The.
Rabbis apply it to the constellation called Draco.
Parkhurst, to some sea monster. Schleusner explains
it : " Serpentem celeriter se fuga proripientem."

Rev. xii. 3, the dragon here seems intended to re-
present some fierce and powerful enemy of the Chris-
tian church; and, from the description given of its
seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon its
head, we are led to infer that the Roman power is
here meant, since to no other does this description so
well apply. This dragon is said to have fought (see
v. 7) with Michael and his angels ; and in v. 9, he is
said to be cast out or discomfited. The whole seems
to intimate, that there should be a sharp contention
between faithful Christians on the one hand, and the
maintainers of error, idolatry, and wickedness on the
other, represented by these two symbolical classes,
which contention should at last end in a complete
victory over the enemies of true religion.

The language employed appears to allude to the
fall of the rebel angels, at a period prior to the crea-
tion of the present world ; but we are left so much in
the dark on that subject, that the allusion is mere
matter of conjecture.

As to the beast, spoken of in Rev. xiii. H, " who
spake like a dragon," it is. extremely difficult to give
any satisfactory interpretation of what is meant by it.

SERPENT. 387

The opinions of commentators differ so widely from
each other, and appear so little in accordance with
the prophetic description, that one is compelled to
leave the matter undetermined. That which seems
most plausible, is the explanation given by Bishop
Newton, who considers the ten-horned beast to be the
Roman state in general, and the two-horned beast to
be the Roman church in particular. And his " speak-
ing like a dragon," he explains to mean, " his usurp-
ing, divine titles and honours his commanding idola-
try, and his persecuting and slaying the true worship-
pers of God, and faithful servants of Jesus Christ."

We read in the 21st chapter of the first book of
Macrobius, " that two serpents were carved under
the images of JSsculapius and Health, because they
bring it to pass, that the human constitution is again
renewed by their influence, as serpents are by throw-
ing .off their skins."

Herodotus, likewise, in his 8th book, says, " That
the ancients worshipped the gods and genii of any
place under the form of serpents."

Hence Persius's expression, Sat. 1, 1. 113.

" Pinge duos angues : Pueri, sacer est locus."

The serpent was adored in Egypt as the emblem
of the Divine nature, not only on account of its great
vigour and spirit, but of its extended age and revi-
rescence. In Cashmere, also, there were no less than
700 places where carved figures of snakes were wor-
shipped. In Salsette and Elephanta, almost all the
deities either grasp serpents in their hands, or are
environed with them, which can only be intended as
a mark of their divinity. In the hieroglyphic sculp-

388 SERPENT SEVEN.

ture of Egypt, their wreathed bodies represented the
oblique course of the stars, while the same bodies
formed into a circle were an emblem of eternity ; and
the serpent was one .of the most conspicuous of the
forty-eight great constellations, into which the ancients
divided the visible heavens. (Maurice's lad. Antiq.
v. ii. p. 189.)

SEVEN. Of all the sacred numbers this is the
most ancient and remarkable ; the most ancient, as
marking the septenary division of time from the crea-
tion of the world; and the most remarkable, as -being
used to set forth a great variety of events and mys-
terious circumstances.

It may be viewed in two lights, as the symbol of
perfection, and as the symbol of rest. God conse-
crated the seventh day as a day of repose ; and every
seventh year was sabbatical, as being consecrated to
the rest of the earth. The rest of the seventh day or
.Sabbath, according to the Apostle, Heb. iv. 4, 9, in-
timates eternal rest.

Seven times seven, or the forty-ninth year, intro-
duced the year of Jubilee. Jacob's seven years' ser-
vice to Laban ; Pharaoh's seven fat oxen, and seven
lean ones ; the seven branches of the golden candle-
sticks; the seven trumpets, and seven priests who
sounded them ; the seven days' siege of Jericho ; the
seven chtirches, seven spirits, seven stars, seven seals,
seven vials, and many others, sufficiently prove the
importance of this sacred number.

But in several places, seven, like ten, is put inde-
finitely for many. Thus Isaiah ivi 1, " Seven women,"
i. e. several or many women.

SEVEN. 389

Psalm xii. 6, " Silver purified seven times," *. e.
many times.

Psalm Ixxix, 12, " Render to our neighbours seven-
fold," t. e. punish them severely.

Prov. xxvi. 16, " Seven men that can render a
reason," i. e. many men.

The word seven (Heb. shebo) in its radical mean-
ing, imports sufficiency, fulness, plenitude. And the
seven prismatic colours, and the seven sounds of the
octave, seem to give it a universality "which no other
number possesses. Cicero declares, that it contains
the mystery of all things. Hippocrates affirms, that
this number, by its occult virtues, tends to the evolu-
tion of all things ; and he, like Shakspeare, divides
the life of man into seven ages.

Even in the heathen world, we find traces of this
favourite number, the seven wise men of Greece ; the
seven wonders of the world ; the seven stars ; the
seven chiefs before Thebes ; the seven bulls' hides in
the shield of Ajax, and many more.

We have also the seven heavens of the Rabbis, the
seven sacraments of the Church of Rome, the seven
champions of Christendom, the common phrase of a
man's seven senses, the seven years' apprenticeship,
seven years' transportation, and the like.

In the Divine economy, in respect of chastisements,
it is very evident. Thus in Job v. 12, the just is only
smitten six times, but not a seventh ; " He shall de-
liver thee in six troubles ; yea, in seven there shall no
evil touch thee."

Thus also in Ezek. ix. 2, six men are employed to
destroy, but the seventh has the inkhorn, whereby
they that were to be saved are marked.

390 SEVEN.

Philo observes, that nature loves the number seven,
which Censorinus confirms by saying, " That the said
number was of great efficacy h* every thing:"

Farther, the two numbers of four and seven, are
observed by Hippocrates to be critical in the growth
and resolution of fevers. He says, " Of seven days
the fourth is the index ; of the next septenary, the
beginning of it, viz. the eighth day ; and the eleventh
as being the fourth of the second septenary ; and the
seventeenth as being the fourth from the fourteenth,
&c.

Shebo, seven j is plainly derived from shebo, he was
full. And so shebo to swear, is derived from the
signification of fulness ; an oath being an end of all
strife for confirmation, (Heb. vi. 16), when things
are unseen' or future, to content for the present, to
satisfy ami. fill the mind.

Zech. iv. 10, " These seven are the eyes of Jehovah,
which run 1 to and fro through the whole earth."

Mede interprets this of the seven principal angels
which minister before the Throne of God, and are
therefore called Archangels. That the Jews had a
notion or tradition of this kind, appears from the
Paraphrase on Gen. xi; 7, where the words, " Go to,
let us go down, and confound their language," are thus
paraphrased j " The Lord spake to the seven angels
which stand before him, Go to now, let us go down,"
&c. ..--.

These seven archangels seem to be considered as
the Privy Council of God, to whom his secret pur-
poses are made known-before their accomplishment.

And here in Zechariah, the seven lamps are said to
be, i. e. to denote the seven eyes of the Lord ; that is,

SEVEN. 391

the seven watchers or prime ministers of his provi-
dence. . This is confirmed by John, Rev. iv. 5, who
says, " He saw seven lamps before the Throne, which
are the seven spirits of God." And again, ch. v. 6,
" I saw a lamb having seven horns and seven eyes,
which are the seven Spirits of God, sent forth into all
the earth" nearly the very words of Zechariah. Jose-
phus de Bello Judaico, 1. 6, c. 6, affirms that the
seven lamps signify the seven planets, and that they
stood slopewise, to express the obliquity of the Zodiac.
This is a notion of his own, but the Jewish astrolo-
gers considered the seven angels to be the prefects of
the seven planets. In the salutation set down, Rev. i.
4, 5, the language is, " Grace be unto you, and peace
from Him who is, who was, and who is to come, and
from the seven Spirits which are before his Thone,
and from Jesus Christ the faithful witness." Here the
seven spirits are put between the Deity and his Son.
And in ch. viii. 2, " I saw," says John, " The seven
aDgels who stood before God, and to them were given
seven trumpets." These are the chief princes men-
tioned in Daniel x. 13, " Michael, one of the chief
princes, came to help me." And we find Paul ad-
juring Timothy thus : " I charge thee before God,
and the Lord Jesus Christ, and the Elect angels," mean-
ing not the angels in general, but the seven arch-
angels which stand before the Throne of God.

And hence in Persia, whose monarchy was at one
time regulated in part by Daniel as prime minister,
there were seven chief princes, so that the Persian
Court, in that respect, resembled the Hierarchy of
Heaven. They are twice mentioned in Scripture,
Esther i. 14, the seven princes of Media and Persia.

392 SEVEN.... ..SHADOW.

who saw the king's face, and sat first in the kingdom;
And in Artaxerxes* commission to Ezra ch. vii. 14,
they are called the king's seven counsellors.

Perhaps, when the church of Jerusalem chose seven
deacons to minister in the society, they had an eye
the same wayl

And we find the angel that appeared to Zacharias
and Elizabeth saying, "I am Gabriel that stand in
the presence of God." Now, all the angels, in one
sense, stand in the Divine presence ; but not in this
peculiar sense, as his prime minister. And Michael
is said in Dan. xii. 1, to be the prince that stood up
for Daniel's people. And in the church's combat with
the dragon, Rev. xii. 7, Michael and his angels are
said to be her champions, and to have cast the dra-
gon down to the earth. And in Zech. iii. 9 it is
said, " On one stone there are seven eyes;" that
is, that these seven eyes or angels superintend the
foundation which Zerubabel laid for the temple. And
so .we may guess at the meaning of what Hanani the
seer told King Asa, 2 Chron. xvi. 9 "The eyes of the
Lord (i.e. these seven eyes), run to and fro through
the whole earth, to shew themselves strong in behalf
of those whose hearts are perfect towards him." (See
Medes* works, p. 43.)

S H AD O W. In determining the true signification
of figures, it is necessary we should view the objects
iii the same light in which they appeared to the author
who employed them. We must have an eye to the
climate in which he lived, the prevailing customs and
popular notions of the cojmtry, &c. In a cold country
a shade or shadow would scarcely be allowed to be a
proper emblem of any thing that is desirable. But in

SHADOW .SHEEP. 393

Palestine and other hot countries, where the scorching
heat was intolerable, nothing was more pleasant than
a shade to protect from it. The first care of Jonah,
when he waited in the plain near Nineveh, in order
to be an eye-witness of the fate of that great city,
was to prepare a booth, and sit under it in the shadow.
The only comfort God sent him to allay his grief,
was to make a gourd or shady plant to come up over
Jonah, and that comfort was no sooner taken from
him, than the sun beat upon his head that he fainted,
and he wished in himself to die.

This image, which is taken from the life, may help
us to account for the most vehement desires being
compared to a labourer's longing for the shadow.
Job vii. 2.

Agreeably to the same notion, we find among the
principal blessings promised in Christ's kingdom,
Isa. iv. 6, a tabernacle for a shadow in the day-time
.from the heat.

Thus the general construction to be put upon the
word shade or shadow, is that of protection against
some great evils, or security arising from such pro-
tection.

See Judges ix. 15 ; Job xl. 22 ; Ps; xvii. 8 ; Ixiii. 7 ;
xci. 1 , and many others.

Sometimes the; term shadow is used as the symbol
of transitoriness. See 1 Chron. xxix. 15 ; Job. viiv.9 ;
xiv. 2; Ps. cii. 11; cxliv. 4 ; Eccl. vi. 12.
. " Shadow of death," Job iii. 5 ; xxiv. 17, &c. . e.
such a dismal darkness as that which reigns in the
region of the dead. .

SHEEP. Amongst tame animals the sheep are
most frequently mentioned in Scripture, having some

394 SHEEP.

properties which render them fit objects of compari-
son. Thus in Ezek. xxxiv. v. 31, they are the em-
blems of men. As sheep need a shepherd, so men in
a civil state require a ruler, governor, or legislator.
It is the same in the associated state as believers in
Christ ; no church or society could long subsist with-
out pastors. Hence this is the most frequent name of
that office in the New Testament, and Christ calls
himself by the same title. See John x. ; Acts. xx. ;
1 Peter v., and many other passages.

As mildness and gentleness are the qualities of the
sheep, so these are the characteristics of the Christian
disciple, whose master calls upon him to learn of him,
and to be meek and lowly in heart ; Matt. xi. 19-

Another circumstance of similarity may be noted,
as observed by Vitringa, that sheep are nourished for
slaughter ; and so the primitive followers of the Lamb
are described by one of themselves, in Rom. viii. 36,
applying to the apostles the words used by the Psalm-
ist, in Ps. Ixiv. 22, the greater part of which Psalm
was truly descriptive of the sufferings they underwent
in the early times of the Gospel, when the martyrs
were called to undergo with patience the most severe
outrages of their unbelieving fellow men, and to lay
down their lives for the truth's sake.

The proneness of sheep to wander from the fold, is
another particular to be observed, in which there is
too great a resemblance, a resemblance acknowledged
by an Old Testament saint, in Psalm, cxix, and the
last verse :

" I hare gone astray like a lost sheep ;
Seek thy servant, for 1 do not forget thy commandments."

SHEPHEKDS SHIELD. 395

SHEPHERDS, are sometimes put for rulers.
See Nahum iii. 18,

" Thy shepherds slumber, O king of Assyria,
Thy nobles dwell in sloth."

Here the parallelism is plain.

See also Jerem. xii. 10, and xxv. 34, to the end.
Ezek xxxiv. 1, &c. where the negligence of the go-
vernors is pointed out as a cause of the incredulity of
the people.

SHIELD. The symbol of defence and protection,
and of the courage, or sense of security, derived from
thence.

It denotes, in a hieroglyphic sense,

1. The princes or grandees of the earth, who, on
account of their rank and elevation, are, or ought to
be, the protectors of the people. Ps. xlvii. 9; Hosea
iv. 18.

2. The spiritual arms of the faithful, fighting under
their Divine leader. Ps, xci 4 ; Prov. xxx. 5 ; Eph.
vi. 16.

3. God himself, who is often called a shield. Gen.
xv. 1 ; Deut. xxxiii. 29 ; Ps. iii. 3 ; xxviii. 7 ; Ixxxiv.
1 1 ; cxix. 114; and other places.

The materials of shields were anciently wood, co-
vered with skins of beasts, and sometimes with plates
of gold or brass. Some were made entirely of these
metals. Those of Solomon were of massy gold,
1 Kings x. 17. These were carried off by Shishak,
king of Egypt, and Rehoboam made others of brass
in their stead, 1 Kings xiv. 26, 27.

Virgil thus describes the shield of Mezentius, JSn.
1. 10, v. 783,

" Turn pius ./Eneas hastam jacit, ilia per orbem," &c.

396 SHIELD.

. e. ". He darted his spear through the concave Orb
of triple brass, through the linen folds, and thie com-
plicated work with three bull-hides inwove." Taci-
tus mentions golden shields in his Annals, b. 2 ; and
Diodorus Siculus in his 20th book. Alexander the
Great ordered the shields of his soldiers to be covered
with silver, and hence they were called Argyraspides.
Curtius, 1. 4, c. 13; Justin, 1. 12, c. 7-

The form of shields was various ; triangular" ob-
long, but chiefly round. Homer describes them as
round, and Virgil uses the phrase " sub orbe clypei
teguntur." Some of them were sculptured, and con-
tained the names of their generals, and even of their
gods. Athenaeus mentions the shield of Alcibiades
as being made of ivory and gold, and having engraved
on it " Cupido." Demosthenes, as Plutarch informs
us, inscribed the name of " Good Fortune" on his.

The ancients were wont to anoint their shields,
partly to affect the :eyes of their enemies by their
brightness, and partly to strengthen the hide with
which they were covered. This custom is alluded to
by Isaiah, xxi. 5, "Rise, O ye princes; anoint the
shield." And some refer to this custom the expres-
sion in 2 Sam. i. 21, The shield of Saul, as though
it had not been anointed with oil."

Sometimes the shield was reddened with the blood
of enemies, to which Nahum alludes, ch. ii. 3, " The
shield of his mighty men is made red." Though
some suppose that shields were so dyed for the sake
of distinction, just as soldiers wear different uniforms;
and Tacitus de Mor. Germ. ch. 6, uses the phrase
" Scuta lectissimis coloribus distinguunt." Those

SHIELD. 397

that were not reddened were accounted inglorious;
thus Virgil, J2n. 9, v. 548,

" Parmaque inglorius alba ,"

but this may mean, that he had no heroic device upon
his escutcheon, never having distinguished himself
by any valorous action. And Statius has, lib. 5, Silv.

" Nubigeros clypeos, intactaque caedibus arma."
The use of shields was not merely for defence, but
for ornament. They were wont to be crowned with
them; to which some suppose Ps. v. 13. alludes,
" Thou wilt crown him with thy favour as with a
shield." As the word in the Hebrew is not megen,
but tzene, which signifies something pointed, Mudge
is disposed to render it " a fence of spears ;" but
Parkhurst has shewn, that it signifies a large kind of
shield or target, and was so denominated because the
middle part of it projected in a sharpish point, and
this pointed protuberance was of great service to
them, not only in repelling or glancing off missive
weapons, but in bearing down their enemies; whence
Martial has this allusion :

" In turbam incideris, cunctos umbone repellet."

" In crowds his pointed boss will all repel."
In a note he mentions, that in Scheuchzer*s Phy-
sica Sacra, there are several representations of these
pointed shields. In 1 Kings x. 16, 17, the targets
are plainly distinguished from the shields.

It was thought disgraceful to lose or throw away
the shield ; wherefore the Spartan mothers, in deli-
vering a shield to their sons, when they went to bat-
tle, used to say, " My son, either this, or upon this,"
meaning, either preserve this, or be brought back

398 SHIELD.

upon it .as on a bier. Ausonius has an epigram on
this subject :

" Mater Lacsena, clypeo obarmans filium,
Cum hoc, inquit, aut in hoc redi."

Consequently, the shields were firmly held by the
hand, that they might neither fall nor be snatched
from them ; and hence the phrase in Scripture of
handling the shield, which we find in 2 Chron. xxv.
5, and Jer xlvi. 9-

Shields were wont to be suspended as trophies, ei-
ther in temples, to the honour of God, or in private
houses, for the perpetual remembrance of some re-
markable victory. To this Virgil refers in Mn. 1. 7,
v. 13,

" Multaque, praeterea sacris in postibus anna, &c.
Spiculaque, clypeique, erectaque rostra carinia."

Sartorius cites an epigram from Pausanias, which
was added to a shield suspended in the temple of Mi-
nerva:

" Hos tibi Gallorum clypeos rex donat Itoni (t. e. Minervae)
Pyrrhus ab audaci rapta tropsea acie," &c.

Vestiges of this custom we find in the sacred writ-
ings, when David took the shields of gold that were
on the servants of Hadarezer, and brought them to
Jerusalem, and dedicated them to the Lord, 1 Chron.
xviii. 7> compared with verse 11. Goliah's shield
also, mentioned 1 Sam. xvii. 7 was probably so de-
dicated, since we-find his sword deposited with Ahi-
-melech the priest, ; 1 Sam. xxi. 9-

Sometimes shields, and other offensive and defen-
sive armour, were- burnt in honour of the supposed
God of victory. Among the Romans, this act was
an emblem of peace. Among God's people, it might

SHIELD. 399

shew trust in him as their defender. See allusions to
this custom in Ps. xlvi. 9, " He burueth the chariots
in the fire." What is here rendered chariots, is by
the Septuagint and Vulgate rendered shields, and by
the Chaldee round shields. See also Joshua xi. 6.;
Nahum ii. 13. But see especially Ezekiel's descrip-
tion of the burning of the arms of the enemy, in con-
sequence of the complete victory to be obtained over
Gog and Magog, ch. xxxix. 8-10.

Ezek. xxvi. 8, " And lift up the buckler against
thee ;" i. e. says Glassius, by a metonymy of the ad-
junct, " He shall bring against thee soldiers, who use
shields or bucklers." But Michaelis interprets it,
" By forming the testudo," i. e. a warlike engine, or
fence made of boards, covered over with raw hides,
under which, as a penthouse, the besiegers of a town
got up close to the walls.

Those who wish for farther information respecting
shields, may compare the Latin synonymes parma,
pelta, umbo, clypeus, scutum, and the corresponding
terms in Greek; as also the writers on the art of war
among the ancients.

To be well armed, as Daubuz observes, especially
with defensive armour, gives courage, and confidence,
and boldness to attack or undertake any thing. Thus
Horace, speaking of the boldness of him that first
ventured to sea, says, that his breast was armed with
triple brass; 1. 1, Ode 3.

In Job xli. 15, the scales of leviathan, or the cro-
codile, are called his shields in the Hebrew, or, as
Durell renders it,

" The strength of bucklers is his pride,
Shut up, or compacted, as with a close seal."

400 SHIELD .SHIPS.

See in Parkhurst, under apek, a description of a cro-
codile eighteen feet and a half long, whose scales pre-
sented this appearance, being formed in parallel gir-
dles, fifty-two in number, with protuberances in the
middle, like the umbos or bosses of the ancient
shields.

In Ps. Ixxxix. 1 8, shield and king are synonymous :

" For Jehovah is our shield;
The Holy One of Israel is our King."

implying, that rulers are properly the protectors of
their people.

In JEschylus, Clytemnestra calls Jgisthus her
shield :

" Whilst present to my aid jEgisthus stands,
As he hath stood, guarding my social hearth,
He is my shield, my strength, my confidence."

See Agamemnon, v. 1443, Potter's Vers.

SHIPS. Merchant ships signify the merchandise
and treasure which they bring; and are, therefore,
the symbols of profit.

In former times, the ways of trade were generally
carried on by means of slaves ; and therefore, in the
Oneirocritics, ships denote riches procured to a per-
son by the labour of his slaves.

Islands, as has been shewn, are standing and fixed
places of commerce and riches ; but ships are only
transient, moveable instruments, to procure and bring
them, and therefore ships denote moveable riches and
wealth.

The security of the righteous, in opposition to the
disastrous fate of the wicked, is thus pictured out
by Isaiah, ch. xxxiii. 21,

" But the glorious name of Jehovah shall be unto us
A place of confluent streams, of broad rivers,

SHIPS SICKLE. 401

Which no varied ships shall pass,

Neither shall any mighty vessel go through."

Of the enemies of God and his people, on the con-
trary, it is said, verse 23,

" Thy sails are loose, they cannot make them fast ;
Thy mast is not firm, they cannot spread the ensign.
Then shall a copious spoil be divided,
Even the lame shall seize the prey."

Isa. xliii. 14, " The Chaldeans exulting in their
ships." See Lowth, note in loc.

The glory and the increase of the church, by the
conversion of the heathen nations, is thus represented
by the same prophet, ch. Ix. 9>

" Verily the distant coasts shall await me,
And the ships of Tarshish among the first,
To bring thy sons from afar,
Their silver and their gold with them."

SICKLE, the symbol of destruction.

Joel iii. 13, " Put ye in the sickle, for the harvest
is ripe."

The nations are here compared to ripened fruits,
and the time of their destruction to the time of har-
vest, when men cut their corn and grapes."

The harvest is ripe, i. e. they are fit for destruc-
tion, as the ripened corn for reaping.

The wine-press is full, i. e. their wickedness is
come to its full measure.

The vats overflow, i. e. (as it immediately follows)
their wickedness is great, or arisen to the greatest
height.

And in this view Kimchi understands it, who says,
it is a similitude to denote the effusion of blood, the
time of their death being come, because great is the

Dd

402 SICKLE.... ..SILENCE.

evil which they have done to Israel, they and their
fathers.

Rev. xiv.,14, " Having in his hand a sharp sickle."
By this Daubuz understands the representative of the
temporal power or powers who are to execute judg-
ment on the territories of the corrupted church. But
the expression " like unto a Son of man," seems to
point to Christ himself, who strikes the blow, who
has the chief hand in it, though angels also are sent to
accompany him, and assist in the execution, to shew
that this stroke of vengeance on Rome is with all the
force of a divine hand.

For her grapes are fully ripe. This may well
mean, that there is an appointed time when the judg-
ment of .God shall come on his enemies, as there is in
the course of natural Providence a time appointed for
the season of harvest. The one shall as surely come
in its appointed time as the other.

Amongst the ancients, the sickle was an emblem
of acute discourse, as Nonnus has it,

Xeitenv a Trathccfciinv eafTotfcfn AeeAoy et^nfl.
" Labiis non artibus tollens falcem loquacem."

With Euripides (in Hypsipyle), it is the symbol of
death. With others, it was the symbol of punish-
ment and execution. Thus Appian, in his Halieutics,

" Holding in his right hand a sharp sickle, to inflict punish-
ment."

See under Harvest.

SILENCE metaphorically signifies any ceasing
from action.

So the moon is said to be silent when she is in con-
junction, and gives no-Tight ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. 16,
.c. 39; and 1. 18, c. 31.

SILENCE. 403

. So silence in tear is a cessation front acts of hosti-
lity ,-Livy, 1. 37, c. 38.

And so, likewise, when the sun stood still at the
prayer of Joshua, ch. x. 12, 13; the sun, in the origi-
nal, is said to be silent, i- e. not to perform his usual
course. And thus, in Pliny, heaven is said to be si-
lent when no wind is stirring ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. 18,
c. 28. .-..- .

Silence, in the Auspicia, was when nothing foreign
was observed, which might hinder the true observa-
tion of them ; and therefore it was a solemn form,
before any observation was made, for the augur to ask
a proper person if there was silence i Tully de Divi-
nat. 1. 2.

During the sacrifices of the heathens, silence was
required of all the worshippers, excepting the priests
and criers, who only spake the words of their rituals.
This was called Etxpufwa and 2<yjj, and the formula of
the Romans was, Favete linguis (Eurip. Iphig.).

Hence, sacrum silentium in Horace, 1. 2, od. 13 ;
and Theophrastus reckons it as part of the character
of a filthy fellow to speak when he is sacrificing ; so
that, if any one made any prayer in the mean time
for particular favours to himself, he prayed silently,
from which some took the liberty, not being heard,
to ask unreasonable things (Persius, sat. 2, v. 7); on
which account, to hinder such foolish and unreason-
able prayers, Pythagoras commanded his disciples to
speak aloud when they prayed.

As for the Jews, silence was observed in the temple
during the offering of incense; at which time the
people stood in the courts of the temple, and, falling
upon then: knees, prayed every man to himself;

404 SILENCE.

whereas, during the other parts of divine service,
there was a great noise of musical instruments and
trumpets. See 2 Chron. xxix. 25-28 ; Luke i. 10.
Upon this account silence before God, and a silent
soul, may be symbols of praying.

Jev. xlvii. 5, " Ashkelon is put to silence." :
As shaving off of the hair and cutting of the flesh
were marks of grief and mourning, Jer. xvi- 6, so si-
lence is likewise expressive of great affliction. Thus
Job's friends are said to have sat with him seven days
and seven nights upon the ground, without addressing
a word to him,, because they saw his grief was very
great ; Job. ii. 13. And so the term is to be under-
stood, Isa. xv. 1, " Moab is brought to silence," of
Moab's being made speechless with grief and astonish-
ment the night that her cities were spoiled.

Isa. xxxviii. 10, " In the silence of nay days," . e.
in my days or life being reduced to silence or inac-
tivity, i. e. to .death.

Jer. li. 55, " Destroyeth from out of her a great
voice."

When cities are populous, they are of course noisy ;
see Isa. xxii. 2. Silence is therefore a mark of de-
population, and in this sense we are to understand
God's destroying or taking away out of Babylon the
great noise which, during the time of her prosperity,
was constantly heard there, " the busy hum of men,"
as the poet expressively calls it. In this manner the
mystical Babylon is threatened, Rev. xviii. 22, 23,

"And the voice of harpers, and musicians, and pipers, and

trumpeters

Shall be heard no more~at all in thee ;
And the sound of a millstone
Shall be heard no more at all in thee ;

SILENCE. 405

And the voice of the bridegroom and of the bride
Shall be heard no more at all in thee."

Very similar to what Jeremiah has in ch. vii. 34,

" And I will cause to cease from the cities of Judah,
And from the streets of Jerusalem,
The voice of joy and the voice of mirth,
The voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride,
For the land shall become a desolation."

See also Jer. xvi. 9> and xxv. 10.

Ps. Ixv. 1, " Praise is silent before thee, O God, in
Zion," i. e. submissively and quietly waiteth for thee,
silence looking to receive mercies, and praise for
their being received. The Chaldee paraphrases thus :
" The praise of the angels is counted as silence before
thee, O God, whose majesty is in Zion."

The Hebrew term DQ1 demem implies forbear-
ing to act as well as to speak, as in Jer. viii. 14,
where the prophet advises them to take no measures
of resistance, as they would be ineffectually employed
against what God had determined.

Rev. viii. 1, " There was silence in heaven about'
the space of half an hour ;" an allusion to the manner
of the temple worship, where, while the priest offered
incense in the holy place, the \vhole people prayed
without, in silence, or privately to themselves ; Luke
i. 10,

Supposed to refer to the tranquillity of the church
and empire during Constantino's reign, from 323 to
337j or about 15 years; or, as some explain it (see
King's Morsels of Grit. v. 2, p. 81, &c.), for 25 years,
from 312 to 337- If this period could be precisely
ascertained, the length of a prophetical half-hour be-
ing so many years, the prophetical hour and day
would then be more accurately ascertained also. Thus,

406 SILENCE.... ..SILVER SLEEP.

' \

if the half-hour be 25 years, the whole hour is 50
years, and a great prophetical day will be 1200 years,
though the more usual prophetic estimate is a day/or
a year.

SILVER. The holy oracles are compared to sil-
ver seven times purified, Ps; xii. 6, and wisdom is
preferred to it in several passages, as Job xxviii. 15 ;
Prov. Hi. 14 viii. 19, &c.

** The silver cord," Eccles. xii. 6, is understood to
mean " the spinal marrow."

SLEEP, the emblem of death.

Sleep generally arises from labour and weariness,
a long journey, and many toils. To persons who
have undergone these, it is doubly needful and ac-
ceptable. Hence Solomon says, Eccl. v. 12,

" The sleep of a labouring man is sweet,
Whether he eat little or much."

So in Rev. xiv. 13, the voice says,

" Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord,
That they may rest from their labours," &c.

The heathen writers have similar images. Thus
Euripides in Orestes :

" Venerable night !

O thou who givest sweet sleep to man with toils
Exhausted, borne on sable pinions, come."

And an unknown author in Stoboeus says :
" Sleep is not to be procured by couches adorned
with ivory and gold, nor yet by purple tapestry, nor
by precious props and beds, but by works, by just la-
bours, and the very necessity of nature.

Sleep is called stoeet,_on account of its refreshing
the weary limbs, and producing a cessation from or-
dinary -toils. Thus Ovid, Metam. 1. 11, c. 10,

SLEEP, 407

" Somne, quies rerum, placidissime somne Deorum
Pax animi, quern cura fugit, qui corpora duris
Fessa ministeriis mulces, reparasque labori,"

And Valerius Flaccus, Argon. 1. 5,

" Nox hominum genus et duros miserata labores,
Rettulerat fessos optata silentia rebus."

So death is described in Scripture as an end to toil.
Thus Job iii. 17

" There the wicked cease from troubling,
And there the weary are at rest"

And ch. xiv. 12,

*' Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake,
Nor be raised out of their sleep."

Sleep also produces a remission from cares. Thus
Plutarch de Superstitione : " Even slaves forget the
threats of their masters while asleep." Sleep lightens
the irons of the fettered, and mitigates inflammations,
wounds, and pains.

So Job, ch. iii. 1 8,

" There the prisoners rest together,
They hear not the voice of the oppressor :
The small and great are there,
And the servant is free from his master."

Sleep not merely adds to the strength of the body,
but reinvigorates the mind. Hence Menander calls
it, " the health of the body." And. Euripides makes
Orestes say,

" O sleep, thou medicine, who relievest every disease,
How sweetly didst thou come to visit me,
Even in that hour when most thy help I needed,
Venerable oblivion of my misery, how art thou endued with
wisdom."

And Seneca, in his Hercules Juvens, act 4,

" Detur quieti tempus, ut somno gravis
Vis victa morbi pectus oppressum levet."

408 SLEEP.

All will remember the remark of the disciples re-
specting Lazarus, John xi. 12, " Lord, if he sleep, he
shall do well."

In like manner, death brings advantage to the faith-
ful. " To depart and to be with Christ," says Paul,
" is far better ;" to me to die is gain ; while we are
in this tabernacle (the body) we do groan, being bur-
dened.

In sleep all the senses are benumbed, and no longer
perform their proper and usual functions. Hence
Orpheus describes sleep as " binding the frame with
chains, though not of brass." And Virgil, b. 10,
" An iron sleep o'erwhelms his swimming eyes." And
Homer calls it, " all subduing sleep." So death, or
at least its forerunner, old age, is described by Solo-
mon, Eccl. 12,

" The keepers of the house (the arms) tremble,
The strong men (the limbs) bow themselves.
The grinders (the teeth) cease because they are few,
Those that look out of the windows (the eyes) are darkened,
The daughters of music (the ears) are brought low,
The almond tree (the grey hair) flourisheth,
Because man goeth to his long home,
And the mourners go about the streets."

As sleep is generally enjoyed in a bed, the grave
also is called by that name, Isa. Ivii. 2, " They shall
rest in their beds."

Sleep implies waking. So it is said of death, Dan.
xii. 2, " Many of them that sleep in the dust of the
earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some
to shame and everlasting contempt."

Sleep is a divine bestowment, Ps. cxxvii. 2.

" Though the guardian of Israel never slumbers
nor sleeps," Ps. cxxi. 4, yet sleep is attributed to

SLEEP SMOKE. 409

God, speaking of him after the manner of men, as in
Ps. xliv. 23 ; Isa. li. 9 and similar passages ; in all
which is meant merely, a suspension or delay of di-
vine help and interposition, according to that view
of sleep, in which the active powers are suspended.

SMOKE, considered as hindering or obscuring the
sight, may signify gross errors, which obscure and
darken the understanding.

When considered as a thing of no substance and
that quickly disappears, it then signifies ambition,
and the vain promises of courtiers.

When considered as proceeding from incense of-
fered to God, it is the same as a cloud of covering or
protection.

When considered as proceeding from fire only, it
then signifies, according to the Oneirocritics, diseases,
anger, punishment, and war.

And agreeably to this, smoke is in Virgil explained
of war, Mn. 1. 7, v. 76, 81,

"Yet more, when fair Lavinia fed the fire
Before the gods, and stood beside her sire,
(Strange to relate !) the flames, involved in smoke,
Of incense, from the sacred altar broke,
Caught her dishevell'd hair, and rich attire,
Her crown and jewels crackled in the fire.
From thence the fuming trail began to spread,
And lambent glories danced about her head." DBYDEN.

And in the sacred writings, smoke is for most part
the adjunct of war and destruction. See Gen. xix:
28, " And he looked towards Sodom and Gomorrah,
and toward all the land of the plain ; and beheld, and
lo, the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of
a furnace." Also Josh. viii. 20 ; Judges xx. 40 ;
Ps. xxxvii. 20 ; and Isaiah xiv. 31, " From the north

410 SMOKE.

there cometh a smoke ;" t. e. as Lowth observes, a
cloud of dust raised by the march of Hezekiah's army
against Philistia, which lay to the south-west from
Jerusalem. A great dust raised, has at a distance
the appearance of smoke : " fumantes pulvere campi."
Virg.JEn. 11, 908.

To which may be added those places where smoke
is said to come out of God's nostrils, as in Deut. xxix.
20 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 9 > Ps. xviii. 8 Ixxiv. 1, for that
is the same as his anger, according to the constant
rule of the poets.

" XoA yreli 'givi xctQnroci"

THEOCR. IDYL. 1, 18.
" Disce, sed Ira cadat naso."

PERSTOS, SAT. 5. 91.
" Fames et mora bilem in nasum conciunt."

PLAUT. AMPHITB. Act 4.
Hence Virgil,

" Premens volvit sub naribus ignem."

GEORG. 1. 3. v. 86.

And Martial,
. " Fumentum nasum vivi tentaveris Ursi." 1. 6. ep. 64.

In Pindar, smoke likewise signifies anger. He
says, " 'Tis the lot of a good man to bring water
against the smoke to them that quarrel ;" that is, to
make peace when men fall out. Nem. Od. 1.

A house filled with smoke, denotes punishment
from persons in authority, or the Supreme power.
See the Oneirocritics, c. 160.

In Isa. iv. 5, smoke seems to be connected with
images denoting defence : -

" Then shall Jehovah create .upon the station of Mount Zion,
And upon all her holy assemblies,
A cloud by day, and smoke,
And the brightness of a flaming fire by night,
Yea, over all shall the glory (the Schechinah) be a covering.' 1 ''

SMOKE SNOW. 411

A plain allusion to the pillar of cloud and fire in
the wilderness. See Exod. xiii. 21 xl. 38; and
Zech. ii. 5.

" The smoking flax will he not quench ;" Isa. xlii.
3 ; Mat. xii. 20, " Christ will deal tenderly with all
who come to him."

" A perpetually ascending smoke ;" an emblem
of future punishment. Rev. xiv. 11, &c.

Rev. xv. 8, " And the temple was filled with smoke
from the glory of God, and from his power," &c. In
the judgment of Korah, the glory of the Lord apr
peared unto all the congregation, when he and his
companions were swallowed up by the earth. Num.
xvi. 19, "And when the congregation murmured
against Moses and Aaron, this appearance of the glory
was the forerunner of judgment." So that the smoke
here is an emblem to express the execution of judg-
ment.

SNOW. The symbol of purity.

Ps. li. 7,

" Wash me, I shall be whiter than the snow."

Lam. iv. 7,

" Her Nazarites were purer than snow."

Ps. Ixviii. 14,

" When the Almighty scattered kings in it,
It was white as snow in Salmon.'

i. e. it was bright and cheering to the victorious
party, the people of God. Joshua, ch. 12, where the
discomfiture of thirty-one kings is mentioned, may
throw light on the passage, which is a very difficult
one.

Snow being rare in Judea, it was much admired.
Hence the son of Sirach speaks of it with a kind of

412 SNOW.

rapture, Eccles. xliii. 18, " The eye will be astonished
at the beauty of its. whiteness, and the heart trans-
ported at the raining of it."

. The Psalmist, cxlvii. 16, says, " He sendeth forth
snow like wool." So Virgil, Georg. 1, 397,
" Tenuise nee lanae per coelum vellera ferri."

And Martial, 1. 4, ep. 3, v. 1,

" Densum tacitarum vellus aquarum."

Herodotus says, " That the Scythians called the
flakes of snow, ofcg, feathers, and that those parts
which are situated to the northward of their territories,
are neither visible nor practicable, by reason of the
feathers that fall continually on all sides. For the
earth is entirely covered, and the air so full of these
feathers, that the sight is altogether obstructed."
L. 4, c. 7.

Pope, n. 3, line 284, mentions " the fleeces of de-
scending snows."

In some countries, the snow falls in very large
flakes.

Jerem. xviii. 14, " Will the snow leave Lebanon be-
fore any rock of the field ?' i. e. as Blayney explains
it, it would be very unnatural if the snow should quit
the tops of Lebanon, whilst the rocks of less height
in the adjacent country were covered with it. It is
equally monstrous that my people should desert their
own God, and adopt the superstitions of a strange
idolatry.

But see Parkhurst on sheleg, Heb. Lex. p. 700.
Prov. xxxi. 21,

" She is not afraid of the snow for her household,
For all her household are clothed with scarlet ;"

SNOW SON. 413

or rather, with double garments, which are a better
protection against the cold than scarlet.

Snow, according to the oriental interpreters, de-
notes poverty, cares, and tormeats, and sometimes
fertility. And in Persia, as Tavernier says, they
guess at the fruitfulness of the following year, by the
fall of the snow.

SON. See the people of God so called, in Exod.
iv. 22; Hosea xi. 1, and perhaps in Ezek. xxi. 10.

SONG. Songs were generally used on occasions of
triumph and thanksgiving, such as the song of Moses,
at the deliverance from Pharaoh and his host, Exod.
xv. 1 ; the song of Israel at the well of Beer, Num.
xxi. 17; the song of Moses in Deuteronomy, ch.
xxxii. ; that of Deborah, Judges v. 12 ; that of David
on bringing up the ark, 1 Chron. xiii. 8; that of
Hannah, 1 Sam. ch. ii. ; of the virgin, Luke i. 46 ;
of the four-and-twenty elders, Rev. v. 8 ; of Moses
and the lamb, Rev. xv. 3. *

But a few also were sung on occasions of sorrow,
such as that of David on Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam.
i. 18, &c. ; the Lamentations- of Jeremiah ; and the
song he composed on the death of Josiah, 2 Chron.
xxxv. 25.

It is said of Tyre, in Ezek. xxvi, 13, as one mark
of her desolation :

" I will cause the noise of thy songs to cease,
And the sound of thy harps shall he no more heard."

Songs and viols were the usual accompaniments of
sacrifices among the Jews and heathens. Amos v. 23,

" Sacrifica, dulces tibia effundat modos,
Et nivea magna victima ante aras cadat."

SENEC. TROAD.

See Spencer de Leg, Hebr. 1105*

414 SONG .SORES OR ULCERS.

Eccl. xii. 4, " And all the daughters of song shall
be brought low ;" i. e. all the organs which perceive
and distinguish musical sounds, and those also which
form and modulate the voice ; age producing incapa-
city of enjoyment, as old Barzillai remarks, 2 Sam.
xix. 35. And as Juvenal notic.es, thus translated by
Dryden :

" What music or enchanting voice can cheer
A stupid, old, impenetrable ear ?

Fs. Ixviii. 25, describes the manner of Jewish mu-
sical festivities :

" The singers went before,
The players on instruments after ;
Among them were the damsels playing with timbrels."

In Hosea ii. 15, singing implies the manifestation
of the divine favour, where the Targuin says, " I
will work miracles for them and perform great acts, as
in the day when they ascended up out of the land of
Egypt."

In this .sense, a song denotes a great deliverance,
and a new subject of thanksgiving. So a new song,
as in Ps. xl. 3, Rev. v. 9, and elsewhere, implies a
new work of. salvation and favour, requiring an ex-
traordinary return of gratitude and praise.

SORES OR ULCERS. The symbol of sores or
ulcers is very analogous to the vices and guilt of the
mind. For as the habit or clothing shews the quality
and fortune of the person, so the affections of the
body can be used only to denote those of the soul.
The proximity of the clothing is thought to be suffi-
cient to affect the body, and the close union of the
body must certainly affect the soul.

A sore, therefore, signifies an uncleanness, a sin or

SORES OR ULCERS. 415

vice, proportionable to the properties of the sore.
This is thus proved from Holy Writ.

1st, In Deut. xxviii. 35, an eating sore is said to
be the punishment or curse for disobedience. And
thus, as in .the Hebrew style, the work is taken for
the reward, and the reward or punishment for the
work ; the sore may represent the guilt. And hence
Job's friends, from the greatness of his sores, did
agree about the greatness of his supposed sins, and
taxed him accordingly.

2d, A sore, leprosy, or running-sore, were the vi-
sible marks which not only drove a man from coming
into the presence of God, but also forced him to go
out of the camp and the society of men. And there-
fore a sore may very well symbolically represent, that
those who are plagued with it are driven away from
the presence of God, and become abominable in his
sight, and unfit for the society of Christians, which
we know arises not from any bodily infirmity, but
from the ulcers of the soul, the sins and wickedness of
men.

3d, Sores or ulcers symbolically signify sins, be-
cause in the Hebrew phrase to heal signifies to par-
don sins, and to pardon the sin is equivalent to heal-
ing. Thus in 2 Chron. xxx. 20, Hezekiah having
prayed that God would pardon those who had eaten
the passover without being sufficiently purified, " the
Lord hearkened to Hezekiah, and healed the people. 9 '

Thus in Isa. liii. 5, " by our Saviour's stripes are
we healed"

And in Isa. i. 6, wounds, bruises, and sores are
sins ; the binding up of them signifies repentance,
and the healing remission. .

416 SORES OR ULCERS.

Agreeably to this, Philo observes, that the leprosy
is the symbol of the sins of the soul.

Upon the same principle that sores are sins, the
leaves of a tree may be the symbol of remission of
sins or divine pardon, and so of divine favour conse-
quent thereupon. And this,

1st, As leaves of plants are used medicinally to
heal the sores and bruises of bodies.

2d, As they have been used in religious purgations
or expiations.

In the Mosaic law, there was one general kind of
sacrifice commanded for purgation, which consisted*
of a heifer sacrificed and burnt to ashes, with which
and spring water, a leaf was made to serve many
sorts of purgations. When this heifer was burnt, ce-
dar and hyssop with scarlet wool were thrown into
the burning, and when purgations were made with
the water, a branch of hyssop was used to sprinkle
it, Num. xix. 6, 18. Also, in the purgation of the
leprosy, Lev. xiv. 4, 6, 7. Hence in Ps. li. 9.
" Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean."
Which ceremonial rite is symbolical and grounded
upon the abstersive or purging virtue of the hyssop.

As for the Pagans, they used herbs several ways
in sacrifices and purgations, grass and branches,
thus, or frankincense, myrtle, bay, and savine, for
which see Porphyry de Abstinentia, 1. 2, 5, and
Pliny's Nat. Hist. 1. 13, c. 1, and 1. 15, c. 29. All
which practices proceeded from the consideration of
the natural virtues of such plants, which by analogy
between the ulcers of the body and the sin of the
soul, they applied in religious rites as appears irom
Proclus and Jamblichus.

SORES OR ULCERS. 417

3d, Leaves serve for a covering, and so may be
symbols of a propitiation. Sins, when grievous and
ripe for punishment, are said to be before God ;
what, therefore, covers them makes a propitiation.
On this score, the cloud of the incense which covered
the mercy-seat, when, the high priest went into the
sanctuary, is said to prevent his death, Lev. xvi. 13.
God would have a kind of veil to stand before the
high priest, that he might not, as it were, see God
face to face, which was a privilege only granted to
Moses. So in Ps. xxxii. 1, " Blessed is he whose
transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered" And
in Ps. Ixxxv. 2, " Thou hast forgiven the iniquity of
thy people, thou hast covered all their sin ;" where
pardon and covering explain each other.

Farther, sin is nakedness in the style of Scripture,
and the consequence of it is shame. Thus in Exod.
xxxii. 25, when the people had committed idolatry,
Moses saw that the people were naked, for Aaron
had made them naked. So in 2 Chron. xxviii, 19,
" For he made Judah naked, and transgressed sore
against the Lord." What, therefore, covers man,
takes off or at least lessens his shame. When, there-
fore, Adam had sinned, he endeavoured to palliate
his shame by covering his body with leaves or boughs.
But God who was merciful, though he cursed him in
some things, yet he favoured him in others ; and up-
on his confession, which was a token of repentance,
he clothed him. It is probable that God instructed
him to offer up some victims for his sin, and there-
upon commanded him to clothe himself with the
skins.

E e

418 SOW.... ..SPITTING.

SOW. An unclean animal, the symbol of impu-
rity, 2 Peter ii. 22. :

It was held in great abomination among the Jews,
so that their enemies, such as Antiochus Epiphanes,
wishing to affront them, introduced swine among
them. ; .

Our Lord, in Matt. vii. 6, seems, under the name
of swine, to have had a certain description of charac-
ters in view. Men devoted to sensuality, were
disposed to reject the self-denying precepts of the
gospel.

SPITTING. Matt. xxvi. 67, " Then did they
spit in his face ;" predicted by our Lord himself,
which shewed that he laid stress on that part of his
ignominious usage, in Luke xviii. 32.

" He shall be spitefully treated, and spitted on ;"
predicted long before by the prophet Isaiah, speaking
in the person of the Messiah, ch. 1. 6, " My face I
hid not from shame and spitting;" an instance, as
Lowth observes, of the utmost contempt and detest-
ation.

It was ordered by the law of Moses, in a certain
case (see Deut. xxv. 9), as a severe punishment, car-
rying with it a lasting disgrace.

Among the Medes it was highly offensive to spit
in any one's presence, Herod, i. 99. And so like-
wise among the Persians, Xenoph. i. p. 18.

Job makes it a complaint in his affliction, ch. xxx.
10,

" They abhor me, they flee far from me ;
They forbear not to spit in my face." .

And Jehovah said unto Moses, " If her father had
but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven

SPITTING. 419

days?" Num. xii. 14; on which place Chardin re-
marks, " that spitting before or spitting upon the
ground, in speaking of any one's actions, is through
the east an expression of extreme detestation."

If spitting in a person's presence was such an in-
dignity, how much more spitting in his face ?

It was a mark of thorough contumely. Petronius,
Satyric, p. 51, says, " familiaequesordidissimam partem
ac me conspui jubet." And a little after he says,
" verberibus sputisque extra januam ejectus." And
so Seneca de Const. Sap. cap. 1. "A rostris usque
ad arcum Fabianum per seditiosae factionis manus
tractus, voces improbas et sputa, et omnes alias insanae
multitudinis contumelias pertulisset." And Dio. 1. 4,
says, " But Fulvia taking the head, threw it down
with bitter words and spitting." And the Christians
in the east were wont to spit on the idols of the Gen-
tilesi as a mark of hatred and contempt. So Gregory
Abulphar, in his Hist. Dynast, writes, p. 265, " Ti-
phurius a Christian scribe was hostile to Honainus,
and they met at one time in the house of a certain
Christian in the city of Bagdad, and there was an
image of Christ and his disciples, and a lamp burning
before the image. And Honainus said to the master
of the house, Why do you waste the oil ? This is
not Christ nor his disciples, but an image. And Ti-
phurius said^ If they are not worthy of veneration,
spit upon them ; and he did spit."

There is a passage in Seneca which shews that
spitting was an indignity, offered to men condemned
to punishment. Thus, " Aristides was led from
Athens to punishment, whom whoever he met, he
cast down his eyes and groaned ; not as if animad-

420 SPITTING..:...STAFF. STAR.

verting on this just man, but as if he found fault
with justice itself. Yet there was one person found
who spat in his face."

When the ancients happened to meet an insane
person, or an epileptic, it was customary to spit at
them. See Theophrastus, Characters, cap. 17, Pliny,
lib. 28, cap. 4.

STAFF. The staff of bread, on which man leans
for support, Lev. xxvi. 26 ; Ezek. iv. 16, &c.

Thus Lucretius,

'* Et quoniam non est quasi quod suffulciat artus,
Debile fit corpus, languescunt omnia membra,
Brachia palpebraeque cadunt, poplitesque procumbunt."

L. 4, v. 948.

Hosea iv. 12,

" My people ask counsel at their stocks,
And their staff declareth to them."

This refers to the divination by rods or staves,
which was anciently practised in the East. On one
staff was written, God bids ; on the other, God for-
bids. See Pocoek; and. under Arrow.

STAR. Stars are symbols of persons in eminent
station, and very fitly so, from the height of their
own position. Thus, the Star out of Jacob, Num.
xxiv. 17, is coupled with, or explained by, the Sceptre
out of Israel. In Gen. xxxvii. 9, Joseph's brethren
are described as eleven stars, their subsequent renown
as patriarchs justifying the appellation. In .Num.
xxiv. 17, just quoted, where the Hebrew and Greek
have a. star, the Chaldee expounds it, " A king shall
arise out .of the house of Jacob," which interpreters
apply: first to David, and afterwards to the Messiah.
In .allusion to this prophecy, that infamous Jewish

STAR. 421

impostor Bar-cocab, or, as the Romans called him,
Barchochebas, who appeared in the reign of Adrian,
assumed this pompous title, " Son of a Star," as the
name implies, as if he were the Star out of Jacob ;
but this false Messiah was destroyed by the Emperor's
general, Julius Severus, with an almost incredible
number of his deluded followers.

Stars were the symbols of a Deity, " the star of
your god Chiun," Amos v. 26. Probably the figure
of a star was fixed on the head of the image of a false
god. A Greek scholiast on the place says, " Erat
simulachrum Moabitarum cum gemma pellucida et
eximia in summa fronte ad figurant Luciferi." Chiun
was a name for Saturn, as Spencer affirms.

Plutarch, de Isid. et Osir. tells us, the Egyptian
priests affirm of their tutelary deities, not only of those
that are immortal, but likewise of their deified he-
roes, " that their souls illuminate the stars in hea-
ven." A star, therefore, was often used in the Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics, as a symbol of their men-gods.
This, as well as rays of light, was their common in-
signia all over the world. Lucan vii. v. 458,

" Fulminibus manes, radiis ornabit'et astris."

We are told the same by Suetonius, in his Life of
Julius Caesar : "In deorum numerum (Caesar) re-
latus est," &c . ; t . e. " he was ranked among the gods,"
not only by the words of a decree, but in the real
persuasion of the vulgar. For during the games,
which his heir Augustus gave in honour of his me-
mory, a comet blazed for seven days together, rising
always about eleven o'clock. It was supposed to be
the soul of Caesar, now received into heaven ; and for

422 STAB.

this, reason a star vf as added to the crown of his

When Joseph said, Gen. xxxvii. 9, I have dream-
ed a dreamland behold the sun and the moon and the
eleven stars made obeisance to me," his father, under-
standing his words in their symbolical and true mean-
ing, rebuked him, and said to him, " Shall I and thy
mother and thy brethren indeed bow down ourselves
to thee?* But as the heavenly bodies, mentioned by
Joseph, could not appear, even in a dream, as making
obeisance to him, we may believe that he saw in his
dreain, not the heavenly bodies, but a visionary re-
presentation of his parents and brethren making
obeisance to him ; and that, in relating this to his fa-
ther, he chose, from modesty, to express it in symbo-
lical, rather than in plain language. Besides, as there
never was any collection of stars called the eleven
stars, the application which Jacob made of that ap-
pellation to Joseph's eleven brethren, shows clearly
that the word star, in common speech, was used to
signify the father of a tribe. Macknight, vol. iii.
p. 496.

In Daniel viii. 10, the stars seem to denote the
princes and nobles of a kingdom, who were thrown
down and stamped upon by the power, designated by
the " Little Horn." * Stellarum nomine (says Glas-
sius, p. 780) viri illustres et praecipui intelliguntur,
qui administratione suain ^Ecclesia et Republica aliis
prseluxeruht."

In Rev. viii. 10, 11, a star is said to fall from
heaven, by which, in aH probability, some king is to
be understood as rebelling against another power.
This star is called Wormwood, on account of its bit-

STAR. 423

ter consequences. Daubuz supposes this star to mean
Attila, king of the Huns, who, in A. D. 442, laid waste
several provinces of the Roman empire.

Rev. ix. 1, " I saw a star fall from heaven to the
earth ;" i. e. an inferior power revolting against a su-
perior, and this in order to his own aggrandizement.
Daubuz affirms this to be Mahomet, who, in 622, be-
gan to take the sword in behalf of his own imposture,
and became successful. Bishop Newton gives the
same interpretation.

Rev. ii. 28, " I will give him the morning star ;"
i. e. I will bestow on him pre-eminence.

Job xxxviii. 7>

" When the morning stars sang together,
And all the sons of God shouted for joy."

Perhaps this may refer to an opinion, that the stars
are under the direction of guardian angels. But why
the morning stars ? Because it was at the time of the
creation, the morning of the first day.

Rev. i. 20, the pastors of the seven churches are
called the seven stars, on account of their office.

Jude, verse 13, the false teachers are described as
" wandering stars," in allusion to those meteors arising
from electrical matter in the air, which blaze and are
in motion for a time, but are suddenly extinguished.

Rev. vi. 13, " The stars of heaven fell upon the
earth ;" i. e. some principal ruling powers fell from
their authority into a state of subjection.

Bishop Newton considers this to signify the down-
fall of the Pagan Roman empire, when the great
lights of the heathen world, the sun, moon, and stars,
the powers civil and ecclesiastical, were all eclipsed
and obscured, the heathen emperors and Caesars were

424 STAR STING.,....STONES.

slain, the heathen priests and augurs were extirpated,
the heathen officers and magistrates were removed,
the heathen temples were demolished, and their re-
venues were appropriated to better uses. .

Rev. xii. 4, " His tail drew the third part of the
stars of heaven ;" i. e. the power here alluded to,
would subdue the governments in the third part of
the then known world. Here, as Daubuz observes,
the decorum of the symbol is followed, crocodiles and
some great serpents, seizing their prey with their
tails.

STING is equivalent to the poison it contains, and
transmits into the wound it makes.

In Scripture, poison, lies, error, delusion, curses,
gall, and mischief, are synonymous ; the former being
the causes of the latter.

So in Ps. cxl. 3, " Adders' poison is under their
lips," is to be explained by lies or curses ; as in Ps.
Iviii. 3, 4, " They go astray as soon as they be born,
speaking lies. Their poison is like the poison of a
serpent: they are like the deaf adder, that stoppeth
her ear." And in Ps. xiv. 5, " With their tongues
have they deceived ; the poison of asps is under their
lips; their mouth is. full of cursing and bitterness."
For the sting of the scorpion, see under Scorpion.

STONES. (White Stone.) The most ancient
way among the Grecians of giving sentence in courts
of judicature, was by black and white pebbles, called
*i)<poi. They who were for acquitting a person tried,
cast into an urn a, white pebble, and those who were
for condemning him a block one. Ovid has noticed
this custom, Met. 1. 15, v. 41,

STONES. 425

." Mos erat antiquis, niveis atrisque lapillis,

His damnare reos, illis absolvere culpa." j

" Black and white stones were used in ages past,
These to acquit the prisoner, those to cast."

The like was done in popular elections ; the white
pebbles being given by way of approbation, and the
black ones by way of rejection. The ballot of the
present day is something similar.

Hence. a white pebble or stone becomes a. symbol
of absolution in judgment, and of conferring honours
and rewards, Rev. ii. 17.

The symbol of a stone cut out of a mountain with-
out hands is used, in Dan. ii. 34, and may be thus ex-
plained :

A mountain has been shown to signify symbolically
a kingdom or empire. Now, a mountain consists of
stones united together. By the rule of analogy, stones,
therefore, must signify the several peoples of which a
kingdom or empire, represented by a mountain, is
composed. And, therefore, a stone cut out of a sym-
bolical mountain, will be a people to be formed out
of the kingdom represented, and to be (forasmuch as
the cutting denotes a separation) of a quite different
nature from the rest of the people, of which the said
kingdom consists. And this is said to be done without
hands, which may denote that the said people would
be of a sudden formed, when men were not aware of
any such thing ; and that it would be done without
any visible worldly support or assistance.

Zech. ix, 16,

" And Jehovah their God shall save them,
In that day shall he save his people as sheep,
When consecrated stones shall he erected for a standard in
his land ".... . .

426 STONES .STORK.

a reference to heaps of stones, set up by way of me-
morial, and consecrated to that particular use ; i. e. as
monuments of victory. See 1 Sam. vii. 12, " Then
Samuel took a stone, and set it between Mizpeh and
Shen, and called the name of it Eben-ezer, saying,
Hitherto hath the Lord helped us." Ebenezer signi-
fies the stone of help. See also 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; and
Virgil, Georgic, 1. 3,

" Stabunt et Parii lapides spirantia signa."

Strabo, Geogr. 1. 3, mentions, " that it was custo-
mary amongst the ancients to mark the limits of their
victorious progress by altars or columns of stone."
And Xenophon, Anabasis, 1. 4, records, " that an im-
mense pile of stones was erected by the Greeks, on
their return from the expedition to Asia."

Stones of this kind were wont to be consecrated by
pouring oil upon them. See Gen. xxviii. 18. They
were also crowned with garlands ; but of this there is
no mention in Scripture.

STORE, a well-known bird, remarked for its na-
tural affection, and for other qualities. It is a bird
of passage.

It is mentioned in several passages of Scripture;
among others, in Jerem. viii. 7>

" Even the stork in the heavens knoweth her stated times,
And the turtle-dove, and the crane, and the swallow, observe

the season of their coming :
But my people have not discerned the judgment of Jehovah."

" In the end of autumn," says a Danish author,
the storks, not being able to bear the winter of Den-
mark, gather in a great body about the sea-coasts,
as we see swallows do, and go off together ; the old
ones leading, the young brood in the centre, and a

STORK.... ..SUN. 427

second body of old ones behind. They return in
spring, and betake themselves in families to their
several nests."

It is this quality of foresight and anticipation of
the seasons, of which the sacred writer makes the
stork the symbol, and which he employs as a ground
of reproach against the Jews ; in .the same manner as
our Lord reproaches the Pharisees (Matt. ch. xvi.)
with being able to discern the face of the sky, but not
to discriminate the signs of the times.

A& these birds shun the winter instinctively, so the
people of God, when they see the coming of Divine
judgments, should make preparation to escape from
them, by repentance or otherwise.

And as these birds return in spring to their former
abodes, so God's people ought to distinguish the times
and periods which He has fixed for the duration of
his judgments.

It is the wish of God that his people should be so
employed; and it is their interest and duty not to be
indifferent spectators of the signs of the times, that
they may escape the visitations which impend over
others.

SUN. SUN, MOON, AND STARS. Wherever the
scene of government is laid, whether in the civil or
ecclesiastical state, or in that of a single family, the
sun, moon, and stars, when mentioned together, de-
note the different degrees of power or governors in
the same state.

This is evident, in relation to a single family, from
Joseph's dream, Gen. xxxvii. 10, where the sun, moon,
and stars are interpreted, of Jacob, -the- head of his

428 SUN.

family, of his wife, the next head or guide,, and of
his sons, the lesser ones.

And as to a kingdom, the Oriental Oneirocritics,
ch,167j jointly say, that the sun is the symbol of the
king, and the moon of the next to him in power. And
therefore the stars, when mentioned together with the
sun and moon, must denote governors or rulers of an
inferior kind, but next in power to him who is the
second person in the government.

And therefore the stars, in the symbolical charac-
ter, which, taken from the appearance of things, and
their proportion, being to the eye lesser luminaries,
signify, according to the interpreters, interior princes
or governors.

And thus Hippolytus, prince of Athens, is called a
star by Euripides (Hippol. v. 1120).

When a king is not compared with his own nobles
or princes, but with other kings, a star may be his
symbol. Thus, in Isa. xiv. 17, the king of Babylon
is represented by the morning star. For, as it is
brighter than the rest of the stars, and is the forerun-
ner of the sun, and so shews a power preceding in
time the rest of the light, so the king of Babylon was
greater in power and dignity than other kings, and
the monarchy established in Babylon was the first
that was established in the world.

A setting sun is the symbol of a declining and pe-
rishing power.

A rising sun, of a rising power or government.

Whatever conies from the rising of the sun beto-
kens some fortunate^-accident, according to Artemi-
dorus, 1. 3, c. 36. It is a good, and prosperous omen,
and betokens assistance.

SUN. 429

Thus in 2 Sam. xxiii. 4, the favour and protection,
of God to his people is compared to the light of the
morning when the sun riseth, even a morning without
clouds.

For as in Hosea vi. 5, light is the symbol of God's
government, so the dawning of it in the rising of the
sun, is the beginning of his favour and deliverance,
which is to go forwards to greater perfection.

Hence Solomon says, Prov. iv. 18, " The path of
the just is as the shining light, which shineth more
and more unto the perfect day." And again, ch. xx.
27, " The lamp or light of Jehovah is the breath of
man," i. e. the favour of God keeps men alive, makes
them active, vigorous, and prosperous.

In Isa. Iviii. 8, it is said,

" Then shall thy light break forth as the morning,
And thine health shall spring forth speedily."

The health implies forgiveness of sins, and the light
of. the morning a deliverer. That is, God will send
a Deliverer, and forgive the sins of his people, or re-
mit the punishment.
So also in Isa. Ix. 1, 2,

" Arise, shine, for thy light is come,
And the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee," &c.

The Light or Deliverer here is the Messiah, who, to
the church of Israel, is the 'A*TOAJ, the day-spring,
east, or sun-rising, as well as the light of the world,
Zech. iii. 8, Mai. iv. 2, John i. 4, &c., and is there-
fore called the Sun of Righteousness.

All which agrees with the words of Zacharias,
Luke i. 78, 79> " Whereby the day-spring, AnaraAu,
from on high hath visited us, to give light to them
that sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to

430 SUNi

guide; our Feet into, the way of peace.? For the
words." to sit in darkness and in the shadow of death/?
signify, to be in slavery and subjection ; in allusion
to an eastern custom still in practice, of putting .the
slaves in prisons, or pits under groundj where ;they
are locked up every night. And ; sometimes 'they
were blinded, as appears from Judges xvi. 21, and
from the custom of the Scythians, related by Hero-?
dotus, 1. 4, 2. Those that were designed for work
elsewhere^ were every morning taken, out of the dun-
geon^ and sent to their labour.

Now as the day-spring delivers them from that
place, at least for a time, so it is a proper symbol of
release from slavery, according to the subject spoken
of. Thus in Isa. xlii. 6, 7>

" I will give thee for a covenant to .the people,
For a light to the nations,
To open the eyes of the blind,
To bring the captive out of confinement,
And those that dwell in darkness from the dungeon."

See to the same purpose Isa. xlix. 9. And thus also
it is said, Ps. xlix. 14, " The upright shall > have do-
minion over them in the morning ;" that is, when God
comes to judge the cause of the upright, that have
been in oppression, and sets them at liberty, then
shall the upright in their turn subdue the' wicked.

And there is this further conformity of the expres-
sion to the nature- of the thing, that justice was exe-
cuted, and causes tried in courts in the morning, as
appears from Jer. xxi. 12; so that the morning is the
proper time of gaol-delivery, and courts of justice
met then, the places in which slaves were either de-
livered to their masters by sentence for payment, or

SUN;: 431

else set at liberty, such causes being there managed,
as is evident from Exod. xxi. 6,

So Tyndarus, in Plautus, being taken out of the
quarry-pits, says, " Lucis das tuendae copiam, you
release me from my slavery;" (Capt., act. 5. so. 4;
v. 11.)

God himself is called a sun, Ps. Ixxxiv. 12.
And Jesus Christ calls himself the light of the
world, i. e. the sun of the world, John viii. 12.

Deborah, in her song, makes the sun the symbol of
believers in God : " Let them that love him be as the
sun when he goeth forth in his might," Judges v. 31.
The sun may be considered to be an emblem of
Divine truth, respecting which the Apostle says, Eph.
v. 13, " But all things that are reproved are made
manifest by the light, for light is that which doth
make things manifest." As light is not only manifest
in itself, but makes other things manifest, so one
truth detects, and reveals, and manifests another, as
all truths are dependent on, and connected with each
other, more 'or less.

As the sun is the supreme material light, so that
when he rises, all other lights disappear; so when
" God teaches, whether by reason or by revelation, all
other teaching appears valueless, and every other im>
nitor seems silent, that the voice of God alone may
be heard. .

As it is the same sun that illuminates all parts of the
earth, so^whatever nations throughout the whole habit-
able globe are instructed by God, it is. the . same truth
by which they are instructed ; for God does not teach
differently in different places. , Truth is no geogra-

432 SUN.

phical thing, affected by latitudes, climates, or the
like.

As the light of the sun is one, pure, and un-
stained, for the spots we seem to discover on his disc,
are probably not on, but collected around the sun;
so it is said of God, 1 John i. 5, " God is light, and
in him is no darkness at all ;" i. e. he is exempt from
all error, deceit, injustice, imperfection, and all light
derived to the creatures, proceeds solely from him.

The light of the sun was considered anciently to
have a sanative and vivifying power ; and Macrobius
mentions (Saturn. 1. cap. 17.), when treating of Apol-
lo, that the vestal virgins were wont to address him
in this manner, " O Apollo Medice O Apollo the
physician ;" and we find Jesus spoken of as the sun
of righteousness, with healing in his wings, . e. in his
beams. And hence John says, " In him was life, and
the life was the light of men," chap. i. 4.

Amongst the ancients, the sun was considered to
be the symbol of a king. So Gordian, Hadrian, Au-
relian, are represented on coins under the figure of
the sun, with the inscription, " Oriens. Aug. sive soli
invicto, Soli invicto Comiti," &c.

In the Jewish writings we often find this title ap-
plied to the Messiah. Thus in Rabboth, fol. 149,
" They said unto him, No, unless when the sun shall
come, i. e. the Messiah, as it is written, And to you
who fear my name shall the sun of righteousness
arise." And Raschi on Isa. xxiv. 15, where he says,
" Jonathan interprets it, when light shall come to the
just,- this is said of the two lights of deliverance
from Babylonish and Roman captivity, i. e. the Mes-

SUN......SWORD. 433

siah, whom they feigned to themselves to be such a
deliverer."

SWORD. The symbol of war and slaughter, as
appears from numerous passages of Scripture, espe-
cially in the prophetical books. See Isa. xxxiv. 5;
Ezek. xxi., &c.; Rev. xix. 17> 18.

Lev. xxvi. 25. " I will bring a sword upon you ;"
i. e. I will cause war to come.

Gen. xxvii. 40, " By thy sword thou shalt live;"
i. e. Thou shalt support thyself by war and rapine.

2. It is the symbol of the Divine judgments. See
Deut. xxxii. 41, &c.

Also, of the instrument whom God employs to ex-
ecute his judgments. Ps. xvii. 13, " The wicked,
who is thy sword."

3. It is the symbol of power and authority. Rom.
xiii. 4, " He beareth not the sword in vain."

This is spoken agreeably to the notions and cus-
toms of the Romans at the time when the apostle
wrote. Thus; not more than ten or twelve years af-
ter the date of this epistle, Vitellius, when he resigned
the empire, gave up his dagger, which he had taken
from his side, to the attending consul, thus surrender-
ing the authority of life and death over the citizens.
See Tacitus, b. 3, c. 68, and Suetonius in Vitell.
cap. 15.

So the kings of Great Britain are not only, at their
inauguration, solemnly girt with the sword of state,
but this is afterwards carried before them on public
occasions.

4. It is the symbol of unjust violence. Matt. xxvi.
52, " All they that take the sword, shall perish by
the sword."

Ff

434 SWORD.

Our Lord uses it in opposition to peace, Matt. x.
34, " I came not to send peace on earth, but a sword,"
which Luke, xii. 51, expresses by the word Division ;
i. e. men would so abuse his doctrine, as to make it
the occasion of violent contentions, but as to its pro-
per design and natural tendency, the angels pro-
claimed it at his appearance in the flesh, that it was
to send " peace on earth."

The Egyptians, those great masters of symbolical
learning, called Ochus, king of Persia, a cruel con-
queror to them, by the name of sword. See Plut. de
Isid. et Osir. p. 394, quoted by Daubuz.

In many authors, the sword is the symbol of death
or destruction. Thus Euripides says (Helen, v. 809)>
" The sword shall reach thee, not my nuptial bed."

5. The word of God is often in Scripture com-
pared to a sword, as by Paul in Eph. vi. 17, " And
the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God ;"
L e. the spiritual sword of God's word, the knowledge
of which not only separates them from evil affections,
but teaches them to discern between truth and false-
hood ; guards the Christian from the influence of cor-
rupt and destructive doctrines, and destroys the influ-
ence and force of the most artful and delusive errors.

So in Heb. iv. 12, " The word of God is quick and
powerful (or living and energetic), sharper than any
two-edged sword." And in Hosea vi. 5, the word of
God is said to destroy all his enemies :
" Therefore have I hewn them by the prophets,

I have slain them by the words of my mouth ;

And my judgments have been as the light when it goeth
forth." ""

On which passage see Newcome's notes.

See also Isa. xlix. 2, and Lowth's excellent note

SWORD..., ..TABERNACLE. 435

there, in which, inter alia, he remarks, " The meta^
phor of the sword and the arrow, applied to powerful
speech, is bold yet just." It is said of Pericles by
Aristophanes,

" His powerful speech
Pierced the hearer's soul, and left behind,
Deep in his bosom its keen point infix'd."

Pindar is particularly fond of this metaphor, and
applies it frequently to his own poetry. See Olymp.
2. 160 and 149, and Olymp. 9- 17, where he calls his
verses shafts, to denote their acute and apposite appli-
cation.

So, in Acts ii. 31, the words of Peter are said to
have " pierced the hearts of his hearers."

Jer. xlvii. 6, "Ho, sword of Jehovah," &c. The
Babylonish monarch seems to be addressed by this
title, as the Assyrian was by that of " the rod of
God's anger," Isa. x. 5 ; such conquerors being the
appointed executioners of the Divine judgments. Com-
pare Ezek. xiv. 17, and xxi. 3, &c.

In the vision related by John, Rev. i. 16, of one
like unto the Son of man, it is said, " out of his
mouth went a sharp two-edged sword," in conformity
to Isaiah's expression already referred to in ch. xlix. 2,
He hath made my mouth like a sharp sword;" a
character belonging exclusively to him who is himself
" the Word of God."

TABERNACLE. The tabernacle among the
Jews was the symbol of God's presence, and conse-
quently of his protection, and of his church, to whom
that protection was vouchsafed. So that it prefigured
the Christian Church as in favour with God, and un-

436 TABERNACLE......TAIL-

der his protection, but in an unsettled condition.
Acts vii, 44 ; Heb. viii. 5, ix. 24.

The tabernacle of the Jews, on account of the
Schechinah dwelling in it, was a type of the body of
Christ, in whom dwelt all the fulness of the Godhead
bodily, and who was therefore on earth the tabernacle
of God with men.

See Temple.

Tabernacle is also used to denote the human body,
which, though the residence of an immortal spirit, is
constituted of frail and slight materials, and is short-
ly to be by death taken down and dissolved. 2 Cor.
v. 1, 4 ; Wisdom ix. 15.

Amos has a remarkable passage, quoted in Acts xv.
16,

" In that day I will raise up the fallen tabernacle of David,
And I will close up the breaches thereof,
And I will raise up its ruins,
And I will build it as in the days of old ;
That the residue of men may seek Jehovah,
And all the heathen over whom my name is called,
Saith Jehovah who doeth this."

AMOS ix. 11, 12.

By the tabernacle of David, he elegantly expresses
the kingdom or real dignity of David in the person
of the Messiah ruling over the Church.

The mansion of the Sun in heaven is called by the
Psalmist a tabernacle, Ps. xix. 4.

TAIL. , Tail in holy writ is used symbolically to
signify two things which meet frequently both toge-
ther in one subject, the one being the cause of the
other.

1st, It signifies subjection or oppression under ty-

TAIL. 437

ranny. So this symbol is used and explained by God
himself in Deut. xxviii. 13, where he promises bles-
sings to the obedient : " And the Lord shall make
thee the head and not the tail, and thou shalt be
above only, and thou shalt not be beneath."

And thus in the Oriental Oneirocritics, the tail of
a beast, as being the part that follows or comes be-
hind, signifies the retinue, honour, dignity, and riches
of the subject concerned, ch. 233, 236.

The other signification of tail is, when it signifies
a false prophet, impbster, or deceiver, who infuses the
poison of his doctrine, which brings on a curse, as
the scorpion doth with his tail.

Thus in Isa. ix. 14, 15, " The Lord will cut off'
from Israel head and tail, branch and rush, in one
day. The ancient and honourable he is the head,
and the prophet that teacheth lies he is the tail." So
again, ch. xix. 15, " Neither shall there be any work
for Egypt, which the head or tail, branch or rush may
do ;" that is, neither the power of the princes, nor the
devices of the false prophets and enchanters shall
avail any thing.

By this may be explained the symbolical meaning
of that great miracle exhibited to Moses, of the ser-
pent transformed out of his staff*, and into it again ;
which was to assure him of his power to overcome
the Egyptians. The staff was thrown upon the earth
and turned into a serpent, at which Moses was
frightened, to shew what terror he and the Israelites
were in at the sight of Pharaoh the great Egyptian
Dragon. He is ordered to take it by the tail, and
it was turned into a staff, to shew that he would over-
come the tail of the serpent, the false prophets, and

438 TAIL..;. ..TEARS.

retinue of Pharaoh, and by that victory get into his
power a sceptre or authority to govern the Israelites.
(Exodus iii. 3, 4.)

To the same purpose was the second miracle
wrought in consequence of that, when the rod of
Moses turned into a serpent, Exod. vii. 9> 12, swal-
lowed up those of the magicians ; for that plainly
shewed and signified the power of Moses to overcome
the magicians in their enchantments, and to rescue
Israel out of their hands.

TEARS. Isa. xxv. 8, " And the Lord Jehovah
shall wipe away the tear from off all faces."

Rev. vii. 17, " And God shall wipe away all tears
from their eyes."

See also Rev. xxi. 4.

Tears are the well known .emblems and usual ac-
companiments of grief; and as grief is generally most
violent when it is indulged for the dead, so here, in
two of the above passages, the wiping away of tears
is connected with the abolition of death.

Isaiah xxv. 8, " He shall utterly destroy death for
ever."

Rev. xxi. 4, " And there shall be no more death."

Tears are wont to be poured out on occasions of
mortality. Thus:

Jer. xxxi. 15,

" A voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation and bitter weeping,
Rachel weeping for her children,
Refused to be comforted for her children,
Because they were not."

Jer. xxii. 10,-

" Weep ye not for the dead, neither bemoan him,
But weep sore for him that goeth away,
For he shall return no more, nor see his native country. ?J

TEARS. 439

Tears are sometimes shed for national calamities.
Thus:
Lam. i. 2,

" SHe weepeth sore in the night,
And her tears are on her cheeks."

Num. xiv. 1,

" And all the congregation lifted up their voice, and cried,
And the people wept that night."

Tears are sometimes the offspring of painful sus-
pense and anxiety. Thus : Cicero, Ep. b. 14, ep. 3.
" Accepi ab Aristocrato tres epistolas, quas ego lacry-
mis prope delevi. Conficior enim nufirore, mea Te-
rentia."

And Ovid has

. " Est quaedam flere voluptas,

Expletur lacrymis egeriturque dolor."

And David, Ps. xlii. 4,

" My tears have been my meat day and night,
While they continually say to me, where is thy God."

And Ps. Ixxx. 5,

" Thou feedest them with the bread of tears,
And givest them tears to drink in great abundance."

Ps. cii. 9>

" For I have eaten ashes like bread,
And mingled my drink with weeping."

And Hagar's pitiable case is thus described in
Gen. xxi. 15, 16, *.' And the water was spent in the
bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs.
And she went and sat her down over against him a
good way off, as it were a bow-shot ; for she said,
Let me not see the death of the child. And she sat
over against him, and lifted up Tier voice, and wept."

440 TEARS TEETH.

A Greek poet in the Anthology thus bewails his
condition :

&ecxy)%ten ytroptw, te.au dxxgvtrctg int&rn<TX,et t x. r. A.
which may be thus rendered in Latin :

" Lacrymans sum natus et lacrymans morior,

In lacrymis universam comperi vitam.
O genus hominum lacrymosum, debile, miserabile,
Tractum in terra solutumque."

Tears are often the symbol of divine judgments, as
they are sometimes also of human oppressions. Eccl.
iv. 1 ; Acts xx. 19 ; Jer. xiv. 17. -

They are sometimes the fruit of repentance and
contrition. See Heb. xii. 17 ; Matt. xxvi. 75.

And commonly the result of natural affection, de-
ploring a beloved object, of which the examples are
too obvious and numerous to cite. There is a singu-
lar inscription in Aringhi's Roma Subterr. cap. 20,
" Tempore Adrian! imperatoris, Marius adolescens
dux militum qui satis vixit, dum vitam pro Christo
cum sanguine consumsit, in pace tandem quievit.
Bene merentes cum lacrymis et metu posuerunt."

Whatever the causes of tears to the righteous, all
these shall be abolished, which is what is meant by
" God's wiping away all tears from their eyes." For
death, oppression, calamity, repentance, shall have no
place in the heavenly region. Weeping may endure
for a night, but joy cometh in the morning. Those
who sow in tears shall reap in joy.

TEETH are frequently used in Scripture as the
symbols of cruelty, or of a devouring enemy.

Thus in Prpv. xxx* 14, " There is a generation
whose teeth . are as swords, and their jaw teeth as

TEETH. 441

knives, to devour the poor from off the earth, and
the needy from among men."

So David, to express the cruelty of tyrants, Ps. Ivi.
6, prays to God, " to break out the great teeth of the
young lions."

So God, threatening the Israelites for rebellion.
Deut. xxxii. 24, says, " I. will also send the teeth of
beasts upon them."

And David, Ps. Ivii. 4, compares the teeth of wick-
ed men to spears and arrows. " My soul," saith he,
" is among lions, and I lie even among them that are
set on fire, whose teeth are spears and arrows, and
their tongue a sharp sword."

See Ps. iii. 8, Iviii. 7> cxxiv, 6 ; Job xxix. 17-

There are various places of the New Testament in
which future punishment is set forth under the sym-
bol of gnashing of teeth, viz. Matt. viii. 12, xiii. 42,
xxv. 30 ; Luke xiii. 28. From these it would appear
to denote despair, on account of the hopelessness of
their condition. :

So Virgil, ./En. 6, v. 557? " Hinc exaudiri gemitus
e t sseva sonare," &c.

" From hence are heard the groans of ghosts, the pains
Of sounding lashes, and of dragging chains.
The, Trojan stood astonished at their cries,
And ask'd his guide, from whence those yells arise,
And what the crimes, and what the tortures were,
And loud laments that rent the liquid air." . .

DRYDEN.

The phrase may also denote envy, on account of
the happiness of others. Ps. cxii. 10,

" The wicked shall see it, and be grieved,
He shall gnash with his teeth and melt away ;
The desire of the wicked shall perish."

442 TEETH......TEMPLE.

Horace uses the expression, 1. 4, ode 3,
" Et jam dente minus mordeor invido."

It is also a mark of malignity and fury. Thus
Acts vii. 54, " they gnashed on Stephen with their
teeth." See also Job xvi. 9. Hesiod in his shield of
Hercules, v. 403, applies it to the fury of wild beasts :

" As two grim lions for a roebuck slain,
Wroth in contention rush, and them betwixt
The sound of roaring and of clashing teeth
Ariseth." ELTON.

It may include horror and murmuring on learning
their doom. See Matt. xxv. 41. So Homer, II.

m f\ 1

xxui. v. 101,

" Like a thin smoke he sees the spirit fly,
And hears a feeble, lamentable cry."

See Rev. xvi. 9, 10, 11.

TEMPLE. Temple and tabernacle, or tent, are
opposite.

A tabernacle or tent denotes an unsettled state,
from the use of tents in places where men travel and
have no settled habitations.

And thus, whilst Israel was unsettled in the desart,
and even in Canaan, till the utmost of what was pro-
mised to Abraham for their sakes was fulfilled, God
had a moveable tabernacle, and therefore said of him-
self that he also walked in a tent and in a tabernacle ;
2 Sam. vii. 6.

But, on the contrary, when the Israelites were fully
settled in the promised land, God had then, to shew
his fixed abode with them, a standing house, palace,
or temple built for~him ; and, to make up the notion
of dwelling or habitation complete, there were to be
all things suitable to a house belonging to it.

TEMPLE: 443

' Hence, in the holy place, there was' to be a table
and a candlestick, because this was the ordinary fur-
niture of a room. The table was to have its dishes,
spoons,' bowls, and covers, and to be always furnished
with bread upon it ; and the candlestick to have its
lamp continually burning.

Hence, also, there was to be a continual fire kept
in the house of God, upon the altar as the focus of it.

And, besides all this, to cany the notion still far-
ther, there was to be some constant meat and provi-
sion brought into this house, which was done in the
sacrifices, that were partly consumed by fire upon the
altar, as God's own portion and mess, and partly
eaten by the priests, who were God's family, and
therefore to be maintained by him.

Besides the flesh of the beast offered up in sacri-
fice, there was a mincha made of flour and oil, and a
libamen that was always joined with the daily sacri-
fice, as the bread and drink which was to go along with
God's meat.

It was also strictly commanded, that there should
be salt in every sacrifice, because all meat is unsa-
voury without salt.

Lastly, all these things were to be consumed on the
altar only by the holy fire that came down from hea-
ven, because they were God's portion, and therefore
to be eaten or consumed by himself in an extraordi-
nary manner.

From all this it appears that the building of the
temple was wholly designed to make a durable and
permanent mansion for God, and consequently for
his worship ;; a rest for the ark, a settlement for the
feet of God, as David designed it, 1 Chron. xxviii. 2 ;

444 TEMPLE,

and as God himself did declare it: to David by "the
prophet Nathan, 1 Chron. xvii, 4, 5, 9.

And therefore the word temple, when used sym-
bolically, is the symbol of the .Christian .church since
its settlement.

In the Oneirocritics, a temple is interpreted of ;the
house of the king, which agrees with the Jewish
temple being a house or palace for God, as the king
or monarch of .the Jews.

As a tabernacle denotes an unsettled-state of the
church,, so even the symbol , of temple may come un-
der the -notion of a tabernacle whenever the church
is in a weak declining condition. Thus, in Jer. x.
20, when the Jewish nation was reduced to such a
state that the temple was to be destroyed, and the
people led into captivity, the temple is spoken of
under the symbols of tabernacle and curtains, to shew
that the temple was as it were tottering, and as un-
settled as a tabernacle. The like opposition is to be
seen in Amos ix. 11, where the kingdom or house of
David in oppression comes under the notion of a ta-
bernacle. The opposition between a house and ta-
bernacle appears in Prov. xiv. 11,

" The house of the wicked shall be overthrown,
But the tabernacle of the upright shall flourish.".

The meaning is, the most flourishing state of the
wicked shall have an end, but the upright, from a
low oppressed condition, shall be exalted to honour
and happiness.

And thus Paul, comparing this life and its unsettled
state with the certainty and perpetuity of the next,
calls the first " our earthly house of this: tabernacle,"
subject to dissolution^ adding, that " in this tabernacle

TEMHLE......TEN. 445

we groan being burdened ;" but the other is " a build-
ing of Godj a house not made with hands, eternal in
the heavens," 2 Cor. v. 1. So in Heb. xiii. 13, 14,
we have the symbols of a camp and city opposed,
which bear the same proportion to each other as tent
and temple.

TEN. Ten, according to the style of the Scrip-
tures, may have, besides the signification of that de-
terminate number, that also of an indefinite one, yet
so as not to imply either a very great number or a
very small one.

See Gen. xxxi. 7 41, where ten times means many
times ; Lev* xxvi. 26, ten women are many women ;
1 Sam. i. 8, ten sons are many sons ; Eccles. vii. 9,
ten men are many men. See also Dan. i. 20 ; Amos
vi.9; Zech. viii. 23.

And so in several places of Plautus, ten signifies
many. Mercat. act 2, sc. 3, v. 2 ; act 4, sc. 2, v. 3 ;
Stich. act 3, sc. 2, v. 44 ; Amphitryon, act 2, sc. 1,
v. 27.

Rev. ii. 10, "Ye shall have tribulation ten days."
Ten days (says Lowman), I conceive, is not to be
understood literally, a short time of affliction, in-
deed! hardly agreeable to a description of that tri-
bulation this prophecy seems to prepare the church
for.

So ten thousand words, 1 Cor. xiv. 19> are put for
an indefinite number, or for a prolix discourse.

And ten thousand, or a myriad, is frequently used
in the same indefinite sense. See 1 Sam. xviii. 7,
" Saul hath slam his thousands, and David his ten
thousands."

That ten is a favourite number in Scripture may

446 TEN...V..TERAPHIM.

be seen in many passages, viz. Gen. xxiv. 10, Abra-
ham's servant took ten camels ; verse 22, bracelets
often shekels ; Gen. xxxii. 15, Jacob took ten bulk
and ten foals for Esau ; Exod. xxvi. 1, " make a ta-
bernacle with ten curtains;" 1 Sam. xvii. 17, "ten
loaves," verse 18, " ten cheeses ;" 2 Kings v. 5,
" Naaman took ten talents, and ten changes of rai-
ment ;" Matt. xxv. 1, the parable of the ten virgins j
Dan. vii. 7 the fourth beast, or great monarchy, had
ten horns ; Rev. xii. 3, John saw a dragon having
ten horns. See also Rev. xiii. 1 ; xvii. 3, 7, 12, 16.

These have been explained to mean ten distinct
kingdoms, that should arise in several parts of the
Roman empire, and lists have been given of them by
different interpreters. But as these kingdoms were
shifting and variable, it may be well not to under-*
stand the number ten too precisely, but simply that
several new kingdoms were erected when the northern
nations divided the empire among themselves, which
is a well-known fact.

TERAPHIM were idols of the human form.

In Syriac terep signifies to inquire, and, in Arabic,
to abound with the goods of life. Teraphim may
therefore denote images to enquire of, or to bestow,
good things. Spencer thinks the word equivalent to
seraphim, a celestial order, by the usual substitution
of tau for shin in the Eastern tongues. Whatever
they were, they appear to have been objects of ido-
latrous worship. Yet we find them in use both
among believers and unbelievers; see Gen. xxxi. 19,
34, 35 ; Judges xvii. 5 ; xviii. 14, 18, 20 ; 1 Sam.
xix. 13, 16 ; and in 2 Kings xxiii. 24 ; Ezek. xxi. 21 ;
Zech, x. 2. Comp. 1 Sam. xv. 23 ; Hosea iii. 4.

TERAPHIM...... THIGH. 447

From these, as Parkhurst observes, the heathen of
various nations appear to have had their penates, or
household gods, as the Tyrians, Arcadians, and Tro-
jans, from whom the Romans derived theirs.

THIGH is the part on which the sword of a war-
rior is hung. See to this purpose Exod. xxxii. 27 ;
Judges iii. 16, 21 ; Ps. xlv. 3 ; Cant. iii. 8 ; Homer,
11.1,900.

In another sense, the thigh is the symbol of off-
spring. Thighs, literally taken, are explained by the
interpreters of kinsmen.

A third symbolical signification of thigh may be
taken from the custom in the time of the patriarchs,
when a man imposed an oath upon another to secure
his promise, he made him put his hand under his thigh.
Abraham thus adjured his servant, Gen. xxiv. 2, 9<
And Jacob adjured Joseph that he should not bury
him in Egypt, Gen. xlvii. 29. :

This is still practised in the East, as some authors
tell us. In 1 Chron. xxix. 24, according to the ori-
ginal, "the putting of hands under Solomon" is a
ceremony of homage and obedience, whereby the
person swearing gave the greatest token of his design
to be faithful.

Jer. xxxi. 19, " I smote upon my thigh."

Smiting upon the thigh was an indication of in-
ward sorrow and compunction. See Ezek. xxi. 1 2 i
so also in Homer's Iliad, 2, 124,

" Divine Achilles viewed the rising flames,
And smote his thigh, and thus aloud exclaims,
Arm, arm, Patroclus !"

Rev. xix. 16, " And on his thigh a name written,"
L e. on one part of the garment which covered his

448 THIGH THREE.

thigh, the place where the sword is usually worn, a
motto or inscription was observed, on which he was
styled " King of Kings, and Lord of Lords," to sig-
nify that he was really possessed of a just dominion
over all the princes and kingdoms of the earth.

THREE, frequently signifies, in the sacred writers,
greatness, excellency, and perfection. It is thus used
in Isa. xix. 23, " In that day shall Israel be the third
with Egypt and Assyria ;" i. e. great, admired, be-
loved, and blessed, as it there follows. So in Prov.
xxii. 20, according to the original, "Have I not
written unto thee three things," which our version
renders excellent things. But all the ancient versions
read t hree times, as Durell remarks, referring proba-
bly to the three books that bear Solomon's name.
See also Prov. viii. 6, and Hosea viii. 12.

So t^*St^ shelish, in Ps. Ixxx. 6, and Isa. xl. 12,
is a great measure. And so the third in order, sig-
nifies a hero or great man, as in Exod. xiv. 7>and xv.
4 ; 2 Kings .vii. 3 ix. 25. See also 1 Kings ix. 22 ;
Ezek. xxiii. 15.

In the Latin and Greek tongues, the number three
is also mystical, and often signifies many, and does
not so much imply an exact number, as a great in-
crease.

Whether their attachment to the number three, as
Potter observes, was owing to its supposed perfection,
because, containing a beginning, middle, and end, it
seemed to signify all things in the world ; or whether
to the esteem the Pythagoreans, and some other phi-
losophers had for it, on account of their trinity : or
lastly, to its aptness to signify the power of all the
ods, who were divided into three classes, celestial,

THREE. 449

terrestrial, and infernal, I shall leave to be determined
by others. Thus much is certain, that the ancients
thought there was no small force and efficacy in un-
equal numbers, whence we find three fatal sisters,
three furies, three names and appearances of Diana,
three sons of Saturn, among whom the empire of the
world was divided ; and for the same reason we read
of Jupiter's fulmen trifidum, Neptune's trident, with
several other tokens of the veneration they had for
this number.

Hence r^e-fKyife?, thrice great, that is, very great.
And in Horace, 1. 1, Od. 1, triple honours are many
honours.

The repetition of a word, sentence, or petition
thrice, is a token of great earnestness, as in Jer. xxii.

29,

" O earth, eartt, earth, hear the word of Jehovah."

Ezek. xxi 27,

" I will overturn, overturn, overturn it."

It was a great emphasis when our Saviour told
Peter that he should deny him thrice. So Paul, to
shew the earnestness of his prayers, says, ' That he
besought the Lord thrice," 2 Cor. xii. 8. So our
Saviour prayed three times in his agony, that the cup
might pass from him. Matt. xxvi. 44.

The heathen, to shew their sorrow for the death of
their kinsmen, called upon them thrice.

In Pindar, there is an allusion to some old custom
of saluting a king thrice at his inauguration. And
the acclamations in the Roman theatres seem also to
have been commonly repeated thrice. And so in the
senate-house, of which there is an instance and form
in Vulc. Gallicanus, in these words :

450 THREE THRESHING THRONE.

" Antonine Pie, Dii te servent ;
Antonine Clemens, Dii te servent;
Antonine Clemens, Dii te servent."

THRESHING, is always in the Prophets a sym-
bol of the punishment or destruction of the subject
concerned, as in Isa. xli. 15 ; Jer. li. 33 ; Amos i. 3 ;
Micah iv. 13; Habak. iii. 12; and in Isa. xxi. 10,
" O my threshing, and the corn of my floor," signi-
fies, as explained by the Septuagint, " people afflicted,
forsaken, and grieved."

See the different methods of threshing in ancient
times, described by Bishop Lowth, in his note on
ch. xxviii. 27 28, who thus paraphrases the passage
above alluded to, in ch. xxi. 10. " O thou, the ob-
ject upon which I shall exercise the severity of my
discipline, that shalt lie under my afflicting hand, like
corn spread upon the floor to be threshed out and
winnowed, to separate the chaff from the wheat. ;" and
he adds, " The image of threshing is frequently used
by the Hebrew poets with great elegance and force,
to express the punishment of the wicked, and the trial
of the good, or the utter dispersion and destruction
of God's enemies."

THRONE. The symbol of a kingdom or govern-
ment.

Thus, in holy Scripture, throne is put for kingdom,
Gen. xli. 4, "According to thy word shall all my
people be ruled ; only in the throne will I be greater
than thou." In 2 Sam. iii. 10, kingdom and throne
are set synonymously " to translate the kingdom from
the house of Saul j-and to set up the throne of David
over Israel." And both together, as in 2 Sam. vii.
13, " I will establish the throne of his kingdom for

THRONE. 451

And thus God, to represent himself symbolically as
king of the Jews, had the mercy seat with the cheru-
bim about it, as his throne.

See Isa. vi. 1, 2 ; 2 Kings xix. 15 ; 1 Sam. iv. 4 ;
2 Sam. vi. 2 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 6 ; Ps. Ixxx. 1.

In like manner, " the settling of the throne" sig-
nifies the settling or establishment of the government
in peace, as in 2 Sam. vii. 12, 13, 16, where throne
and kingdom explain each other.

And the enlargement of the throne implies a great
accession of dominion and power, as in 1 Kings i. 37>
compared with verse 47. And therefore Solomon,
when he had subjugated all the nations round about
him, so that they were obliged to bring him tribute,
and had thus enlarged his dominions beyond what
David had possessed before, he made a new throne, a
great throne of Ivory, which symbolically represented
bis power, and the enlargement of his dominions, and
the peace and prosperity of his reign.

A throne is, by all the Oneirocritics, in ch. 225,
explained of power. And by the Persian and Egyp-
tian in ch. 261, a royal throne is explained of a king,
or his eldest son.

In the magic oracles of Zoroaster, Avayxns gave?,
the throne of necessity, signifies the power of fate or
death.

Throne of God may signify a great magnificent
throne, according to an usual Hebraism, where nouns
joined with the word God, acquire a sense of excel-
lency and greatness.

According to which, the throne of God may be an
high and exalted throne, a royal or imperial seat, from
whence the political world is ruled, as God from hea-

452 . THRONE.... ..THUNDER.

ven rules the whole universe. See Isa. Ixvi. ' 1. Sec
also under Chariot.

As thrones are seats of dignity, and are to distin-
guish .those who have the administration of govern-
ment committed to them, from the rest of: the people
who are to be governed by them, and can with no
propriety be applied to every member of the king-
dom. So in Rev. xx. 4, where it is said, " I saw
thrones, and they sat upon them," the meaning no
doubt is, that some sat on them, while others had no
thrones appointed to them. The expressions seem
to allude to the Sanhedrim, in which the members sat
on raised seats or thrones, on each hand of the presi-
dent. The same allusion may exist in Matt. xix. 28.

Ps. Ixxxix. 14, and Ps. xcvii. 2, "justice and judg-
ment are the basis of his throne;" i. e. justice and
equity are the foundation of all his proceedings.

THUNDER, in Ps. xxix. 3, is called the voice of
God. This voice comes from heaven ; and as hea-
ven signifies the station of the supreme visible power,
which is the political heaven, so the thunder is the
voice and proclamation of that power, and of its will
and laws, implying the obedience of the subjects, and
at last overcoming all opposition.

So that in this sense, thunder is the symbol of such
oracles or laws as are enacted with terror, and so ter-
rify men into a suitable obedience. And thus the
law of Moses was ushered in with thunders and light-
nings, Exod. xix. 16.

The Oneirocritics had some notion of thunder sig-
nifying the publication of things. See Artem. 1. 2,
c.'8, " Thunder discovers those that are hidden or
desire to be hid."

THUNDER. 453

Thunder considered as a motion or shaking, signi-
fies a revolution in the state, or change of affairs, as
in Haggai 2, 6, 7, 21.

And from the terror which thunder occasions, it is
frequently used in Scripture of God's discomfiting the
enemies of his church, as in 1 Sam. ii. 10 vii. 10 ;
Ps. xviii. 13, and in Isa, xxix. 6, of his punishing the
rebellious Jews.

Amongst the Pagans all other portending symbols
were stopped by that of the thunder, unless the thun-
der did confirm the former by being on the same side.
Senec. Nat. Quest. 1. 2, c. 34 and 41. They esteemed
thunder the immediate voice of God, and therefore
thought it presumption to consult about any thing
when God spake. His voice ought to impose silence
on all according to that eternal maxim of all govern-
ment, that when the supreme authority speaks, the
lesser Courts cannot exert their power, and the pre-
sence of the supreme magistrate supersedes for the
time the power of all the inferiors.

With the Egyptians, thunder was the symbol of a
voice at a great distance. Hor ap. Hierogl. 29.

The seat of thunders and lightnings is the air.

Thunders and lightnings are sometimes mere ac-
companiments of the divine presence ; but at other
times they are symbols of great judgments on the
earth. When they proceed from the throne of God,
as in Rev. iv. 5, .they are fit representations of God's
glorious and awful majesty ; but when fire comes down
from heaven upon earth, it expresses some judgment
of God upon the world, as in Rev. viii. 5 xx. 9
xvi. 19. Those mentioned in Rev. viii. 5. being pre-
vious to the sounding of the trumpets, may be under-

454 THUNDER.

stood as a general description of the many calamities
of that period.

" A thunder storm and tempest, 1 * says Lowman,
p. 94. "that throws down all before it, is a fit metaphor
to express the calamities of war, from civil disturb-
ances, or foreign invasion, which often, like a hurri-
cane, lay all things waste, as far as they reach. It is
thus Isaiah expresses the invasion of Israel by Shal-
manezer, king of Assyria, ch. xxviii. 2,

" Behold the mighty one, the exceedingly strong one,
Like a storm of hail, like a destructive tempest,
Like a rapid flood of mighty waters pouring down,
He shall dash them to the ground with his hand,"

See also Ezekiel xiii. 13.

It is a just observation of Sir Isaac Newton, that,
in the prophetic language, tempests, winds, or the
motions of clouds, are put for wars. Thunder, or
the voice of a cloud, for the voice of a multitude ;
and storms of thunder, lightning, hail, and overflow-
ing rain, for a tempest of war, descending from the
heavens and clouds politic.

The natural thunder is well described by Job, ch.
xsxvi. 29, &c. and xxxvii. 1, &c.,

" Yea, verily he understandeth the expansions of the clouds,
And the thunder of his habitation." *

" At this also my heart trembleth,
And is moved out of its place.
Hear attentively the concussion of his voice,
And the sound that goeth forth from his mouth,
He directeth it under the whole heaven,
And his lightning to the ends of the earth.
After it a voice roareth, he thundereth with his majestic

voice, . .

And he will not restrain them (i. e. his bolts) when his voice

is heard.

God thundereth marvellously with his voice,
He doeth great things, which we cannot comprehend."

TIME. 455

TIME. According to Artemidorus, 1. 2. c. 65,
days, months, and years, are symbolical terms, and
are not always to be understood literally ; but are to be
interpreted according to the circumstances of the case,
and the age of the person. or dreamer.

And so in the Sacred writings, a. day m some places
is put for a year, as in. Num. iv. 34 ; Ezek. iv. 4, 6.
.This practice seems to have arisen, either from
days and years being all one in the primitive state of
the world, or else from the ignorance of men at first,
in settling words to express the determined spaces of
time. A day with them was a year ; a month a year ;
three months a year; four months, or six months, a
year, as well as the whole yearly revolution of the
sun. .

The Egyptians, from whom the symbolical lan-
guage chiefly came at first, gave the name of year to
several spaces of time. (See Suidas, v. e HA5, e H<p<s-os.)
The day is a period and revolution, and so it is an
iwavla;, a year. Plutarch and Diodorus say, that
four months, or a season, were called a year. As for
the annual revolution of the sun, it was called by them
the year of the sun, or the year of God; Horap.
Hierogl. 1. 1. Hence. a full year is called by Virgil
a great year, jEn. 1. 3, v. 284 ; and the year of Jupi-
ter by Homer, H. 2, v. 134.

Terms of time being thus ambiguous among the
ancients, they must in the symbolical language be,
by the rule of proportion, determined by the circum-
stances.. Thus, if days were mentioned of a matter
of great importance and duration, they must be ex-
plained by solar years, or full years. If years were
.spoken of a mean subject, as of the persons of men,

456 TIME.

and seemed to be above proportion, they must be ex-
plained of so many diurnal years, or common days,
This is evidently the principle of Artemidorus, who
finds mysteries in all numbers, and all expressions
determining spaces of time.

Upon this also are grounded Joseph's expositions
of the dreams of the chief butler and baker. For
otherwise three branches should rather signify three
distinct springs or solar years, as the seven ears of
corn in Pharaoh's dream portend seven distinct crops,
and by consequence seven solar years. But the sub-
ject-matter altered the property. Pharaoh's dream
concerned the whole nation, the king being a repre-
sentative of the people. But the chief butler's dream
concerned only his own person.

The way of the symbolical language in expressions
determining the spaces of time, may be yet set in a
plainer light from the manner of predictions, or the
nature of prophetical visions. For a prophecy con-
cerning future events, is a picture or representation
of the events in symbols, which, being brought from
objects visible at one view or cast of the eye, rather
represent the events in miniature, than in full propor-
tion, giving us more to understand than what we

And, therefore, that the duration of the events may
be represented in terms suitable to- the symbols of
the visions, the symbols of duration must be also
drawn in miniature.

Thus, for instance, if a vast empire, persecuting
the Church for 1260 years, was to be symbolically
represented by a beast, the decorum of the symbol
would require, that the said time of its tyranny should

TIME. 457

not be expressed by 1260 years, because it would be
monstrous and unnatural to represent a beast ravag-
ing for so long a space of time, but by 1260 days.

And thus a day may imply a year, because that
short revolution of the sun bears that same propor-
tion to the yearly, as the type to the antitype.

In the chief butler's dream, the three branches sig-
nified three days ; in that of the chief baker, the three
baskets signified the same. In Pharaoh's dream, the
seven fat and seven lean kine, portended so many years
of plenty and famine ; as did also the seven good
and seven bad ears of corn. So likewise in Nebu-
chadnezzar's image, the proportion and order of the
members signifies the order of succession and time:
the head begins, and signifies the Babylonian mo-
narchy, and so on to the feet, legs, and toes, signify-
ing the last tyrannical powers exercising cruelty
against the Saints and Church of God.

Thus also in the Portentum exhibited to the
Greeks in Aulis, of eight young birds with the mo-
ther, which is the ninth, being swallowed up by a
dragon, who is after that turned into a stone, signi-
fying that the Greeks should spend nine years in
their war against Troy ; and that in the tenth year,
they should take the town. (Homer, II. 2, v. 308.)

Cicero objects against this interpretation (de Divi-
nat. 1. 2.) and demands, why the birds were rather to
be interpreted of years, than of months or days? But
the answer is obvious. Years only were proportion-
able to the event, and to the way of managing wars
in those days. So that the rule of proportion is to
be framed upon the circumstances.

458 TIME.

There is such another portentum in Virgil, J3n. 1. 8:
v. 42, where thirty young pigs denote as many years.
And in Silius Italicus, there is an augurium set
down of a hawk pursuing and killing fifteen doves,
and whilst he was stooping upon another, an eagle
comes and forces the hawk away. Which is there
explained of Hannibal's wasting Italy during sixteen
years, and his being driven away by Scipio.

In several places of Scripture, a day signifies an
appointed time or season, as in Isa. xxxiv. 8 ; Ixiii. 4.
And so may imply a long time of many years, as in
Heb. iii. 8, 9> " the day of temptation in the wilder-
ness," is the time of forty years.

In the Latin authors, a day is used to signify time
in general, as in Tully, de Nat. Deor. 1. 2, " Opinio-
num enim commenta delet dies, naturae judicia con-
firmat ;" and in Terence, " diem adimere aegritudinem
hominibus."

And dies also may signify more especially the
whole year, as it does in these verses of Lucretius,
1. 1. v. 10.

" Nam simul ac species patefacta est verna Diei,
Et reserata viget genitalis aura Favoni."

In Tully, dies perexigua signifies a short time,
yet so as to contain 110 days.

Again, annus is the season, thus annus hybernus
in Horace is the winter ; and in Virgil, formosissimus
annus is the spring.

And xowfos, a season, is sometimes used for a year,
as in Dan. xii. 7 ; and so #?. is put for a year in
many places, as "in Sophocles, in the Oriental Oneiro-
critics, in ./Elian, and Ammonius. And Ovid has
used the word tempus to signify a year ; Fast. 1. 3.

TIME TORCH. 459

v. 163. Lastly, g, hour, signifies time indefinitely,
both in sacred and profane authors. In Aristophanes,
S o ? sv ate, in the spring time ; in Thucydides g tin?
the summer time.

And so Hora is used in the Latin authors for time
or season in general. (See Vossius Etym.)

TORCH, when considered in respect only of its
burning, is a symbol of great anger and destruction.
It is thus used by the prophet Zechariah, xii. 6,

" In that day will I make the leaders of Judah
As an hearth of fire among wood,
And as a torch of fire in a sheaf,

And they shall devour on the right hand and on the left,
All the people round about."

So in Isa. vii. 4, Rezin king of Syria, and the king of
Israel, two bitter enemies of Ahaz king of Judah,
threatening war against Judah, are called " two tails
of smoking firebrands."

Thus the dream of Hecuba when with child of
Paris, how she brought forth a torch which burnt the
city, was explained by JSsacus the Oneirocritic, that
the child would prove to be the ruin of his country.
And therefore Euripides calls this Paris by the name
of A#A 7rix.gov fuf&vpta, the bitter representative of a
torch. And so Horace speaking of Hannibal, com-
pares him to torches set on fire, or a blasting wind,
another symbol of war.

" Dims per urbes Afer ut Italas,

Ceu flamma per taedas, yel-Eurus
Per Siculas equitavit undas. '

A star burning like a torch may be a description of
that sort of comets which, for the figure of them, are
called lampadias. And what is by Aristotle called

460 TORCH. ..... TOWER.

is in the author of the description of the
Olympiads called Actfiircc?, and as it is supposed to be
mentioned in the Marble Chronicle at Oxford, it is
there said to burn, xWv.

Now a comet was always thought to be a prodigy
of bad omen ; that in the times of Augustus only ex-
cepted by Pliny.

And streams of fire like torches, of which Livy
gives some instances, were looked upon as ill omens.
And Silius Italicus, describing the prodigies which
foreboded the event of the battle at Cannes, mentions
such torches.

The ancient Grecian signals for beginning a battle
were lighted torches, thrown from both armies, by
men called Trvgtpogot or ;rvgo<pogo who were priests of
Mars, and therefore held inviolable, and who having
cast their torches, had safe regress.

TOWER. Towers and fortresses are put, in the
figurative language of prophecy, for defenders and
protectors, whether by counsel or strength, in peace or
in war. 2 Sam. xxii. 51, " God is the tower of sal-
vation for his king."

Ps. Ixi. 3,

"Thou hast been a shelter for me,
And a strong tower from the enemy."

Prov. xviii. 10,

" The name of Jehovah is a strong tower,
The righteous runneth into it, and is safe."

Isa. xxxiii. 18, " Where is he that numbered the
towers," that is, the commander of the enemy's forces,
who surveyed the fortifications of the city, and took
an account of the height, strength, and situation of
the walls and towers, that he might know where to

TOWER TEA VAILING. 461

make the assault with the greatest advantage. See
Lowtb's note.

Towers are sometimes used to denote proud men,
tyrants, and men in high station. Thus in Isa. ii. 15 ;
xxx. 25.

They were used, naturally enough, as asyla or
places of safety. It is to this use of them the sacred
writer alludes in Prov. xviii. 10, above quoted. Euri-
pides in Medea, v. 389, has an expression to this pur-
pose, " Remaining therefore a short time, if any tower
of safety should appear to us."

They were also used for the purpose of watching ;
See 2 Kings ix. 17, and xvii. 19; See also Isa. xxiii.
13.

TRAVAILING. Travailing (with child) is a
symbol of great endeavours to bring something to
pass, not without much difficulty, pain, and danger.
And the compassing the end, which the persons re-
presented by the symbol aimed at, is a deliverance
from the pain and danger they laboured under.

Hence the symbol of travailing with child is often
used in the Prophets to denote a state of anguish and
misery, as in Isa. xxvi. 17, 18; Ixvi. 7 ; Jer. iv. 31 ;
xiii. 21 ; xxx. 6, 7.

And also in the New Testament, the pains of child-
bearing are used to signify the sorrow of tribulation
or persecution, as in Matt. xxiv. 8 ; Mark xiii. 8 ;
John xvi. 21, 22 ; 1 Thess. v. 3.

And Paul applies the expression to the propaga-
tion of the Gospel through persecutions, Gal. iv. 19,
" My little children, of whom I travail in birth again
until Christ be formed in you ;" i. e. for whom I am
concerned and in fear, till the Christian doctrine has

462 TRAVAILING.... ..TREAD.

overcome in you the habits, of sin. And in Rom. viii.
22, he compares the earnest desire of the creation for
the kingdom of Christ, to the pains of a woman in
travail.

The same metaphor is not unusual in Pagan authors,
and Cicero has it more than once. It is likewise un-
derstood by the Persian and Egyptian interpreters of
afflictions and cares, in ch. 127-

On the other hand, the symbol of the birth betokens
joy and deliverance ; and especially if the child be a
male, as in John xvi. 21. And in Isa. Ixvi. 7, where
the man-child is interpreted by the Targum of a king,
a deliverer.

TREAD. To tread under, or trample on, signi-
fies to overcome and bring under subjection. Thus
in Ps. Ix. 12,

" Through God we shall do valiantly,
For it is he that shall tread down our enemies."

See also Isa. x. 6 ; xiv. 25 ; Dan. vii. 23 ; Ps. cxi.
13, comp. with Luke x. 19-

To tread upon oaths, in Homer, signifies to break
or violate them. See H. 4, v. 157 } where the word
Treclsv is used.

In Rev. xi. 2, the outer court is said to be given to
the Gentiles, that is, should become profane and com-
mon, and the " holy city shall they tread under foot
forty and two months," which Henry More thus ex-
plains : " A kind of Pagano-Christianity, instead of
pure Christianity, shall visibly domineer for forty and
- two months of years, that is, for 1260 years.

The operation of treading the winepress is well
known, and from thence many emblematic expressions

TREAD TREE. 463

are borrowed, and employed in various parts of Scrip-
ture. See Ps. Iviii. 1 1 ; Isa. Ixiii. 3, &c.

TREE. Trees were at first, in the primitive way
of building, used for pillars ; and agreeably to this,
they denote in the symbolical language, according to
their respective bulks and height, the several degrees
of great or rich men, or the nobles of a kingdom, as
in Zech. xS. 1, 2, " Open thy doors, O Lebanon, that
the fire may devour thy cedars Howl, O fir-tree,
for the cedar is fallen, because all the mighty are
spoiled Howl, O ye oaks of Bashan, for the forest
of the vintage is come down." Where the words,
" all the mighty are spoiled," shew that the prophecy
does not point at trees, but at men.

See to the same purpose Isa. ii. 13 ; x. 17, 18, 19 ;
xiv. 8 ; Jer. xxii. 7> 23 ; Ezek. xxxi. 4. See Lowth's
excellent note on Isa. ii. 13.

The Oneirocritics are very full in this particular,
as the Persian and Egyptian in ch. cxlii. and all of
them in ch. cli. and clxv., where trees blown down
with the wind, signify the destruction of great men.

Homer, who has many remnants and notions of the
eastern language, and whose comparisons are exactly
just, very often compares his heroes to trees, as in
b. 14. Hector, felled by a stone, is compared to an
oak overturned by a thunderbolt. In b. 4, the fall of
Simoisius is compared to that of a poplar ; and in
1. 1 7, that of Euphorbus, to the fall of a beautiful
olive.

A tree exceeding great, may be the symbol of a
king or monarchy, as in Dan. iv. And as the vine,
in the dream of Astyages, cited by Valerius Maximus,
1. 1. c. 7-

464 TREE......TRUMPET.

Ezek. xvii. 24, " The high tree, and the green tree,"
refer to Nebuchadnezzar; " The low and the green
tree," to the Jews.

Tree of Life, is a tree that gives fruit to eternal
life, so that they who eat thereof continually shall
never die. It is thus explained, Gen. iii. 22, and is
therefore a proper symbol to signify immortality.

From the happiness of eating of the Tree of Life
in Paradise, any sort of true happiness or joy may
come under the symbol of a tree of life, as in Prov. xy.
4, " A wholesome tongue is a tree of life," meaning,
a tongue that gives sound advice, or pacifies great
offences. And so also in ch. xi. 30, " Hope deferred
maketh the heart sick ; but when the desire cometh,
it is a tree of life. 5 * .

TRUMPET. . The trumpet sounding is, in Exod.
xix. 16-19, the forerunner of the appearance of God,
and of the proclamation of the law.

Amongst the Jews, trumpets were used on several
occasions.

1. To give notice, whilst they were in the wilder-
ness, when the camp should remove, Num. x. 2.

2. To call assemblies, Num. x. 2.

3. To proclaim the return of the jubilee, Lev. xxv.
8,9.

4. To sound over the daily burnt-offering, and over
the burnt-offerings and peace-offerings, on the solemn
days and new moons, 2 Chron. xxix. 27, 28; Ps.
Ixxxi. 3.

5. To give notice of the entrance and going out of
the Sabbath.

6. To sound alarms in time of war ; whence they
signify, in the Prophets, a denunciation of judgments,

TRUMPET. 465

and a warning of the imminent approach of them, as
in Jer.iv. 19,20, 21.

See also Jer. xlii. 14 ; H. 27 ; Amos iii. 6 ; Zeph.
i. 16.

7. Trumpets sounded at the inauguration of the
Jewish kings, 1 Kings i. 34; 2 Kings ix. 13 ; xi. 14.

8. When the city Jericho was to be taken, the
trumpets were to sound, and a shout was to be raised,
Josh. vi. 16.

9. Trumpets were used at the laying of the foun-
dation of the second temple, Esdras iii. 10.

And it is highly probable that trumpets were used
at the laying of the foundation of the first ; for,
during the time pf the building of it, music was con-
tinually used. Compare 1 Chron. vi. 31, 32, with
ch. xvi. 7, and xxv. 1.

Amongst the heathens, trumpets were used also,
upon divers accounts.

1. The Romans made use of them to notify the
watches in the night, and to give notice also of the
time upon several other occasions.

2. They made use of them at the inauguration of
their emperors.

3. The Roman magistrates caused the trumpets to
sound at the execution of criminals, whom they look-
ed upon as sacrifices, or persons devoted, as appears
from Tacitus and Seneca.

4. Trumpets were used by the heathen in sound-
ing alarms for war. Thus Homer makes the heaven
to sound the trumpet when the gods went to war.

" Heaven in loud thunders bids the trumpet sound,
And wide beneath them groans the rending ground."

And Plutarch, in the Life of Sylla, says, " that there

Hh

466 TRUMPET.

were many omens of the war between Sylla and Ma-
rius ; but that the greatest of all was, the sound of a
trumpet in the air."

5. Trumpets were used by the heathen at the de-
struction of cities. Thus, in Amos ii. 2,

" I will send a fire upon Moab,
Which shall devour the palaces of Kirioth ;
And Moab shall die with tumult,
With shouting, and the sound of the trumpet."

And exactly in the same manner is the burning of
Troy described by Virgil, Mu. 2, v. 313,

' New clamours and new clangors now arise,
The sound of trumpets mix'd with fighting cries."

Homer also makes mention of this custom in the fol-
lowing verses, H. 18, v. 218,

" As the loud trumpet's brazen mouth from far,
With shrilling clangor sounds the alarm of war,
Struck from the walls, the echoes float on high,
And the round bulwarks and thick towers reply ;
So high his brazen voice the hero lear'd,
Hosts drop their arms, and trembled .as they heard."

According to the same custom, the Romans de-
molished Corinth by sound of trumpet. These were
a kind of religious acts.

And therefore Alexander the Great, concerning
Persepolis, declared to his generals, that they ought
to make a sacrifice to their ancestors, by its destruc-
tion.

And thus the inhabitants of Jericho were accursed
or devoted, and as sacrifices slain, Josh. vi. 17, 18, 21.

6. The foundations of cities were laid at the sound
of musical instruments ; in allusion to which, in Job
xxxviii. 6, 7, it is said, That when God laid the
foundation of the earth, the stars and angels sang and

TRUMPET TWELVE. 467

shouted for joy," which shows that such a custom had
been used in the patriarchal times ; to which also
there is allusion in Zech. iv. 7-

The trumpet was used to proclaim danger. Thus,
Joel ii. 1,

" Blow ye the trumpet in Zion,
And sound an alarm in my holy mountain,"

as a signal for the immediate approach of the locusts,
and to excite the hearts of the people to repentance.
Amos iii. 6,

*' Shall a trumpet be blown in a city,
And the people not be afraid ?"

i. e. as the people run together through fear, when
the signal of an approaching enemy is made, so let
my warning strike the Israelites with terror.

Rev. iv. 1, " I heard as it were a trumpet talking
with me." " This may probably allude (says Low-
man) to the custom of the Jewish church, that upon
opening of the gates of the temple, the priests sound-
ed their trumpets, to call the Levites and stationary
men to their attendance."

There was an instituted festival among the Jews,
called the Feast of Trumpets, celebrated in the be-
ginning of the civil year, in the month Tisri, answer-
ing to our September. The day was kept solemn, all
servile business was suspended, and particular sacrifices
were offered, Lev. xxiii. 24, 25. The new moons, or
first days of every month, were celebrated also by the
sound of trumpets, Num. x. 10 ; and by extraordinary
sacrifices, &c., Ps. Ixxxi. 3.

TWELVE, a sacred number, symbolical of just
proportion, beauty,, stability, and the like.

Thus, Exod. xxiv. 4, twelve pillars according to

468 TWELVE.

the twelve tribes ; Exod. xxviii. 21, twelve precious
stones ; Lev. xxiv. 5, twelve cakes ; Num. vii. 3,
twelve oxen; Num. vii. 84, twelve chargers, twelve
silver bowls, twelve spoons; Num. vii. 87, twelve
bullocks, twelve rams, twelve lambs ; Num. xvii. 2,
twelve rods ; Josh. iv. 3, twelve stones out of Jor-
dan ; 1 Kings vii. 25, the sea stood on twelve oxen ;
1 Kings ix. 20, twelve lions.

All these twelves, no doubt, had a reference to the
number of the tribes.

1 Kings xi. 30, Jeroboam's garment was rent in
twelve pieces ; 1 Kings xviii. 31, Elijah took twelve
stones and built an altar ; 1 Kings xix. 19, Elisha
plowed with twelve yoke of oxen ; and so in many
other places, where the number twelve occurs.

Job xxxviii. 32, canst thou bring forth the twelve
signs ; Ezek. xliii. 16, the altar shall be twelve cubits
long and twelve broad ; Matt. x. 2, twelve apostles ;
Matt. xiv. 20, of the fragments twelve baskets ; Matt,
xxvi. 53, twelve legions of angels ; Luke ii. 42, when
Jesus was twelve years old ; John xi. 9, are there not
twelve hours in the day ? Acts vii. 8, and Jacob be-
gat the twelve patriarchs ; Rev. xii. 1, on his head a
crown of twelve stars ; Rev. xxi. 12, the city had
twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels ; Rev.
xxi. 14, the wall of the city had twelve foundations ;
Rev. xxii. 2, the tree of life bare twelve manner of
fruits.

And we find the mystical number twelve multiplied
into itself in Rev. xxi. 17, 144 cubits, according to
the measure of a man,-as measured by the angel.

The note of Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, on Rev. vii.
4, is worth transcribing. " This single passage," says

TWELVE TWO. 469

he, " may- show the mistake of those who always ex-
pect the numbers in the Revelation to be precise and
exact ; for is it to be supposed, that there should be
in each tribe 12,000 elect, neither more nor less, to
make up the total sum of 144,000 ? It is not by such
trifles, and low sense, the divine oracles are to be ex-
plained. We are to observe, in the numbers of the
Revelation, a certain figurative proportion, which the
Holy Ghost designs to point out to observation. As
there were twelve patriarchs and twelve apostles,
twelve becomes a sacred number in the synagogue,
and in the Christian church. This number of twelve,
first multiplied into itself, and then by a thousand,
makes 144,000. The Bishop observes, in the solid
proportion of this square number, the unchangeable-
ness of the truth of God and his promises ; perhaps
it may mean the beauty and stability of the Christian
church, keeping to the apostolic purity of faith and
worship." Lowman, p. 84.
TWO, a symbolical number.
The two olive trees, Zech. iv. 3. See Olive Tree.
The two witnesses, Rev. xi. 4.
" Two," says Dr Henry More, " though never so
many, partly by reason of the types in the Old Tes-
tament to which they allude, viz. Moses and Aaron,
Elijah and Elisha, Zerobabel and Joshua, who show-
ed their zeal for the purity of God's worship against
the idolatry in the wilderness, in the Baalitish idola-
try, and in the captivity of Babylon.

" There mayalso be an allusion to things \u this
division into two, viz. to magistracy and ministry, to
the Old Testament and the New, to the people of the
Jews, and to the virgin company of Christians."

470 TWO VALLEY.

The two tables of testimony, Exod. xxxi. 18".

Two disciples sent forth at a time, Mark vi. 7-

Two women who had wings, Zech v, 9-

Two immutable things, the promise and the oath
of God, Heb. vi. 18.

It is sometimes used to denote very few. Thus, in
1 Kings xvii. 12, " I am gathering two sticks ;" ue.
a few. So in Isa. vii. 21, two sheep; i. e. a small
flock.

In Persius, " Vel duo vel nemo" two or none
next to none. And the like in Homer, H. 2, v. 346.

VALLEY. Though for most part used literally,
is sometimes to be met with in a figurative and sym-
bolical sense, as in Isa. xxiu 1, " The oracle concern-
ing the valley of vision."

Jerusalem is here called by that name symboli-
cally, because, as Jerome observes, this city was the
seminary or school of the prophets, in which the temple-
was built, and the visions of God were multiplied,
where he manifested himself visibly in the holy
place.

Ps. xxiii. 4,

" Though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death,
I Trill fear no evil, for thou art with me ;"

i. e. though I encounter the most imminent peril of
death itself. The Psalm speaks of God as a shepherd,
and the metaphor is taken from sheep, which, wan-
dering in search of pasture, and having strayed into
shady valleys, become liable to the dangers arising
from the incursion of wild beasts that make their
haunt there. See Psrcxix. 176.

Ps. Ixxxiv. 7j " Who passing through the valley of
Baca, make it a well."

VALLEY. 471

Baca means a large shrub or tree, which the Arabs
still call by that name, probably so called from its
distilling an odoriferous gum from bece to weep or
ooze out. It appears, according to Celsius (quoted
by Parkhurst), to have been a rugged valley, embar-
rassed with bushes and stones, which could not be
passed through without labour and tears, such as we
may collect from Deut. xxi. 4, were to be found in
Judea. And as Parkhurst adds, " a valley of this
kind was a striking emblem of that vale of thorns
and tears through which all believers must pass to
the heavenly Jerusalem." The Septuagint, Aquila,
and the Vulgate, all translate the word baca by weep-
ing or tears. But see a valuable note in Home's In-
trod. v, 3, p. 42, Ed. 2.

Hosea ii. 15,

" And from thence will I give Tier Tier vineyards,
And the valley of Achor for a door of hope."

It was in this valley, immediately after the execu-
tion of Achan, that God said to Joshua, viii. 1, " Fear
not, neither be thou dismayed," and promised to sup-
port him against Ai, her king, and her people. And
from this time Joshua drove on his conquests with
uninterrupted success. In like manner, the tribula-
tions, of the Jews, in their present dispersion, shall
open to them the door of hope ; and there, i. e. in the
wilderness and in the vale of tribulation, under those
circumstances of present difficulty, mixed with cheer-
ing hope. See Horsley in loe.

Valley of Hinnom or Gehenna, 2 Chron. xxviii. 3 ;
Jer. vii. 32 ; Isa. xxx. 33, and other places.

Gehenna or Tophet, or the valley of Hinnom, was
a .place near Jerusalem, of which we hear first in the

472 VALLEY.

book of Joshua, xv. 8. It was there that the cruel
sacrifices of children were -made by fire to Moloch,
the Ammonitish idol. The place was also called
Tophet, and that, as is supposed, from the noise of
drums (Toph .signifying a drum), a noise raised on
purpose to drown the cries of the helpless infants.
As this place was in process of time considered as an
emblem of Hell, or the place of torment reserved for
the punishment of the wicked in a future state, the
name Tophet came gradually to be used in this sense,
and at length to be confined to it. The term Gehenna,
which corresponds to Tophet, occurs twelve times in
the New Testament.

In Isa. xxx. 33, the place where the Assyrian ar-
my was destroyed is called Tophet, by a metonymy,
for that army was destroyed probably; at a greater
distance from Jerusalem, and quite on the opposite
side of it. . See Lowth inloc.

Jeremiah xxxi. 40, calls :it the "valley of dead
bodies and of ashes, 9 ' from its having been made a
common burying-place, and a receptacle for the rub-
bish and filth of the city. The valley of Hinnom lay
to the west of the city, winding to the south.

Zech, xii. 11, .

" In that day the mourning shall be great in Jerusalem,
As the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddo.'"

Jerome says this was a place near ' Jezreel. De
Lisle places it near Megiddo, where Josiah was slain,
over whom great lamentation was made, 2 Chron.
xxxv. 22-25. :

This mourning of the JewSJ Newcome thinks, will
take place on the re-appearance of their Messiah from
heaven, Rev. i. 7, xx. 4, when the restored descend-

VALLEY :VEIL. 473

ants of those Jews who slew him shall be touched
with the deepest compunction for the guilt of their
forefathers. f

Joel iii, 2, " The valley of Jehoshaphat."
As the term Jehoshaphat signifies in Hebrew "the
judgment of God," -it is very probable that the valley
here mentioned is symbolical, and means, the valley
of the divine judgment, wherever that might be. For
it is said, " I will gather all nations, and will bring
them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat, and I will
plead with them there. In this sense the Chaldee
paraphrase understands it, and renders it " the valley
of the division of judgment." And Theodotion,
" into the place of judgment ;" and in verse 14, it is
called " the valley of decision." From these passages,
the Jews and some Christians have been of opinion,
that the last Judgment will be solemnized in the val-
ley of Jehoshaphat. If we understand the words in
this sense, the valley of Jehoshaphat will denote no
particular place in the country of Judea, but only
some place where God would execute his vengeance
on the enemies of the Jews, which, as Grotius on the
place remarks, may be called a valley, from the man-
ner of human judgments rthe judges sitting in a
more exalted place, and the criminals standing in a
lower. ;

VEIL, a covering worn by females in token of
modesty and subjection.

. It was also used as an ornamental part of dress,
richly embroidered and transparent, in very early
ages. Homer describes, in his Iliad, a beautiful
one offered by the Trojan matrons at the altar of

474 VEIL.

Minerva. And Penelope's is thus described in Pope's
Odyssey, .

" A veil translucent, o'er her brow display'd,
Her beauty seems, and only seems, to shade."

Ceres is said to have worn a black veil by the
Grecian poets, either as a sign of sorrow for the loss
of Proserpine or to conceal her grief from observation.

We find Rebecca makes use of one, on being in-
formed that Isaac was approaching to meet her ; Gen.
xxiv. 65.

When Judah meets Thamar, she is described as
covering herself with a veil. This phrase is rather
remarkable, as Judah, on that account possibly, sup-
posed her to be a courtezan ; Gen. xxxviii. 14. And
it is said that slaves formerly in Greece wore larger
veils than other people.

Euripides makes Andromache complain, in his play
of that name, " I was conducted from my husband's
bed to the strand, my face covered with the veil of a
captive." It is well known that the veils of female
slaves in the Levant, at present, cover the whole
body, and that the Greeks have been more tenacious
of their old customs than most other nations.

That the Jewish ladies, in Isaiah's time, wore veils
is plain from ch. in. 19.

Virgil describes Helen as veiled, Mn. 1, v. 654,

" Et eircumtextum croceo velamen acantho,
Ornatus Argivae Helena."

The veil, as a mark of subjection, seems to be re-
ferred to by the apostle, in 1 Cor. xi. 10, where
women are required to have on their head I|y, i. e.
xet^vftftet a veil, to shew that they are subject to their
husbands, who exercise s%vnv or power over them.

VEIL VESSEL. 475

Arid to this may be referred Gen. xx. 16, where the
veil of Sarah is adverted to.

Euripides, speaking of Hecuba, says, Hecub. v. 486,
" she lies wrapped in veils ;" which he explains, v.
495, by " She lieslike^a servant, or subject, on the
earth."

The veil was worn by suppliants and unhappy
persons of either sex ; see 2 Sam. xv. 30 ; xix. 4 ;
Esther vi. 12 ; Jer. xiv. 3, 4, to which may be refer-
red Mark xiv. 72, where the term t7ri@ahav is applied
to Peter as a penitent. But see Parkhurst on the
term.

The veil is employed as the symbol of ignorance.
Thus, Isa. xxv. 7,

" And on this mountain shall he destroy
The covering that covered the face of all people,
And the veil that was spread over all nations."

See also 2 Cor. iii. 14, &c. where Paul alludes to the
veil of Moses, and says, when the Jews shall attend
to and receive the doctrine of Christ, the veil that is
over their hearts, in the reading of the Old Testa-
ment, shall be taken away. See Origen against Cel-
sus, b. 5, p. 271.

VESSEL. Used to represent the human body or
person, 1 Thess. iv. 4; 1 Sam. xxi. 5. Cicero has
a similar phrase, " Corpus quidem quasi vas est aut
aliquod animi receptaculum." See also Lucret. I. 3,
v. 441, and v. 553.

Earthen vessels, or vessels of shell, 2 Cor. iv. 7,
the ministers of the Gospel.

The weaker vessel, 1 Peter iii. 7 the wife, as com-
pared with her husband.

476 VESSEL...VINE AND VINEYARD-VIRGIN.

Vessels of torath, or of mercy, Rom. ix. 22, 23,
such nations or communities as are objects of God's
favour or displeasure, in allusion to the comparison
of the potter, v. 21.

A chosen vessel unto me, Acts ix. 15, i. e. a most
choice instrument. Neither, says Grotius, did Poly-
foius, speaking of Damocles, use the word reeve;, a
vessel, in another sense ; for this man was a .most
profitable vessel for service, and most fit for business.
Compare 2 Tim. ii. 20, 21.

VINE and VINEYARD. A well-known emblem
of the church of God, whether under the old or new
dispensation. See a beautiful allegory under this
image in Ps. Ixxx. 15, &c. ; in Isa. v. .1, where, at v.
7, it is said, " The vineyard of Jehovah is the house
of Israel." And the same image is frequently em-
ployed by our Lord, as in Matt. xx. 1 ; xxi. 28 ;
Luke xiii. 6. See also John xv. 1 ; Jer. ii. 21 ; Ezek.
xix. 10 ; Hosea x. 1.

Vineyards were usually the scenes of joy, especially
at the time of vintage. Hence, when God threatens
by Amos, v. 17? " And in all vineyards shall be wail-
ing/' it was reversing the customary merriment, and
a mark of indignation.

VIRGIN. This term is often used to denote a
people, city, or nation. Thus, Isa. xlvii. 1 , " Come
down and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Baby-
lon !" Jer. xiv. 17 xxxi. 4, 21 ;. xlvi. 11 ; Lam. ii.
13 ; Amos v. 2.

It is sometimes used as the symbol of purity, 2 Cor.
xi. 2, "That I may present you as a chaste virgin to
Christ."

VIRGIN VOICE. 477

. It is also employed to represent freedom from ido-
latrous defilement and corruption, as in Rev. xiv. 4,
" These are they who are not denied with women,
for they are virgins."

VOICE. The voice of a person, according to the
Indian Interpreter, ch. 50, denotes his fame and re-
putation among the people.

A voice to a person from behind, when the word
behind is not used to denote symbolically a thing fu-
ture, signifies, that the person to whom it is directed
is gone out of the way, and requires to be recalled,
which implies repentance. Thus, in Isa. xxx. 21,

" And thine ears shall hear a voice prompting thee behind,
Saying, This is the way, walk ye in it ;
Turn not aside, to the right or to the left."

Agreeably to this, a voice to a person from behind,
in order to direct him to behold a vision behind him,
will denote that the vision relates to something past
or existent, and to be observed as well backwards to-
wards the time past, as forwards towards that which
is to come.

In Gen, iv. 10, the voice of Abel's blood is said to
cry unto God, a very singular expression, importing
that God is the spectator and avenger of all murderous
transactions, according to the dying words of Zecha-
riah, when slain by Joash, 2 Chron. xxiv. 22, " The
Lord look upon it and require it." There being no
successor to Abel to avenge his death, God takes up
his cause and punishes the fratricide. Thus, as Paul
remarks, whether we live, we live by the Lord, and
whether we die, we die by the Lord; living and dy-
ing we are the Lord's ; Rom. xiv. 8.

478 VOICE WALL.

Thunder is repeatedly called the voice of God.
Thus Job, ch. xxxvii. 2,

" Hear attentively his voice with trembling,
Hear attentively the concussion of his voice ;
He directeth it under the whole heaven,
And his lightning to the ends of the earth.
After it a voice roareth,
God thundereth with his majestic voice ;
He will npt restrain (his thunderbolts) when his voice is

heard.

God thundereth with his majestic voice,
He doeth great things, which we cannot comprehend."

WALL is the strength of a city, and therefore the
symbol of security. So in Isa. xxvi. 1, " Salvation
will God appoint for walls and bulwarks."

Zech. ii. 5,

" I will be a wall of fire round about her,
And the glory in the midst of her."

This sublime image, a wall of fire, strongly expresses
the divine protection, and must have reminded the
Jews of the pillar of fire, by which God directed and
defended their ancestors.

The " glory in the midst" is, no doubt, an allusion
to the symbol of the divine presence in the holy of
holies ; Rom. ix. 4.

A high watt denotes a still greater degree of sta-
bility and safety. See Prov. xviii. 11.

A wall of brass is used by Horace, Ep. 1, b. 1, v.
60, as a symbol of the greatest strength and defence.

The wall of the New Jerusalem, Rev. xxi. 12, &c.
is evidently intended to express the security of the
inhabitants in that happy state, and the angel at each
gate, as a centinel or guard, expresses the same thing,
with the addition of the honour arising from such
guardianship.

WALL. 479

In Prov. xxv. 28, the man who has no command
over his own temper is compared to a city that is
broken down and without walls. He lives exposed
to all the consequences of his own turbulent passions.

Claudian has " non dabitis murum sceleri," i. e. you
shall give no harbour or security to crime.

The servants of Nabal speak of David's followers
as having been a wall to them both night and day,
. e. were a guard or security, 1 Sam. xxv. 16. So
Ajax is called by Homer the wall or bulwark of the
Grecian band ; II. 7-

That is a beautiful expression made use of by
Isaiah ch. xxvi. 1,

" In that day shall this song be sung,
In the land of Judah we have a strong city,
Salvation shall he establish for walls and bulwarks."

Sometimes a wall denotes separation. Thus the
ceremonial law given to the Jews is called a " middle
wall of partition ;" Eph. ii. 14.

-Walls used to be dedicated with particular cere-
monies; see Nehem. xii. 27, and were thence called
sacred.

In idolatrous countries, they were used as a place
of sacrifice. The king of Mpab offered his eldest son
upon the wall ; see, 2 Kings iii. 27-

Pomponius mentions the sacredness of walls in lib.
11, 10, "Sanctae res quoque, yeluti muri et ports
civitatis quodammodo juris divini sunt, et ideo nul-
lius in bonis sunt, ideo autem muros sanctos dicimus,
quia pcena capitis constituta est in eos, qui aliquid in
muros deliquerint." Whence the law of Romulus,
" Ne quis nisi per pprtam urbem ingreditur, maenia
sacrcsancta sunto." Let no one enter the city ex-
cept by the gate, let the walls be sacred.

476 VESSEL... VINE AND VINEYABD...VIRGIN.

Vessels of wrath, or of mercy, Rom. ix. 22, 23,
such nations or communities as are objects of God's
favour or displeasure, in allusion to the comparison
of the potter, v. 21.

A chosen vessel unto me, Acts ix. 15, i. e. a most
choice instrument. Neither, says Grotius, did Poly-
bius, speaking of Damocles, use the word vmvog, a
vessel, in another sense ; for this man was a. most
profitable vessel for service, and most fit for business.
Compare 2 Tim. ii. 20, 21.

VINE and VINEYARD. A well-known emblem
of the church of God, whether under the old or new
dispensation. See a beautiful allegory under this
image in Ps. Ixxx. 15, &c. ; in Isa. v..l, where, at v.
7, it is said, " The vineyard of Jehovah is the house
of Israel." And the same image is frequently em-
ployed by our Lord, as in Matt. xx. 1 ; xxi. 28 ;
Luke xiii. 6. See also John xv. 1 ; Jer. ii. 21 ; Ezek.
xix. 10 ; Hosea x. I.

Vineyards were usually the scenes of joy, especially
at the time of vintage. Hence, when God threatens
by Amos, v. 17, " And in all vineyards shall be wail-
ing/' it was reversing the customary merriment, and
a mark of indignation.

VIRGIN. This term is often used to denote a
people, city, or nation. Thus, Isa. xlvii. 1, "Come
down and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Baby-
lon !" Jer. xiv. 17 ; xxxi. 4, 21 j xlvi. 11 ; Lam. ii.
13 ; Amos v. 2.

It is sometimes used as the symbol of purity, 2 Cor.
xi. 2, "That I may present you as a chaste virgin to
Christ."

VIRGIN VOICE. 477

It is also employed to represent freedom from ido-
latrous defilement and corruption, as in Rev. xiv. 4,
" These are they who are not defiled with women,
for they are virgins."

VOICE. The voice of a person, according to the
Indian Interpreter, ch. 50, denotes his feme and re-
putation among the people.

A voice to a person from behind, when the word
behind is not used to denote symbolically a thing fu-
ture, signifies, that the person to whom it is directed
is gone out of the way, and requires to be recalled,
which implies repentance. Thus, in Isa. xxx. 21,

" And thine ears shall hear a voice prompting thee behind,
Saying, This is the way, walk ye in it ;
Turn not aside, to the right or to the left."

Agreeably to this, a voice to a person from behind,
in order to direct him to behold a vision behind him,
will denote that the vision relates to something past
or existent, and to be observed as well backwards to-
wards the time past, as forwards towards that which
is to come.

In Gen, iv. 10, the voice of Abel's blood is said to
cry unto God, a very singular expression, importing
that God is the spectator and avenger of all murderous
transactions, according to the dying words of Zecha-
riah, when slain by Joash, 2 Chron. xxiv. 22, " The
Lord look upon it and require it." There being no
successor to Abel to avenge his death, God takes up
his cause and punishes the fratricide. Thus, as Paul
remarks, whether we live, we live by the Lord, and
whether we die, we die by the Lord ; living and dy-
ing we are the Lord's ; Rom. xiv. 8.

478 VOICE WALL.

Thunder is repeatedly called the voice of God.
Thus Job, ch. xxxvii. 2,

*' Hear attentively his voice with trembling,
Hear attentively the concussion of his voice ;
He directeth it under the whole heaven,
And his lightning to the ends of the earth.
After it a voice roareth,
God thundereth with his majestic voice ;
He will npt restrain (his thunderbolts) when his voice is

heard.

God thundereth with his majestic voice,
He doeth great things, which we cannot comprehend."

WALL is the strength of a city, and therefore .the
symbol of security. So in Isa. xxvi. 1, " Salvation
will God appoint for walls and bulwarks."

Zech. ii. 5,

" I will be a wall of fire round about her,
And the glory in the midst of her."

This sublime image, a wall of fire, strongly expresses
the divine protection, and must have reminded the
Jews of the pillar of fire, by which God directed and
defended their ancestors.

The " glory in the midst" is, no doubt, an allusion
to the symbol of the divine presence in the holy of
holies ; Rom. ix. 4.

A high wall denotes a still greater degree of sta-
bility and safety. See Prov. xviii. 11.

A wall of brass is used by Horace, Ep. 1, b. 1, v.
60, as a symbol of the greatest strength and defence.

The wall of the New Jerusalem, Rev. xxi. 12, &c*
is evidently intended to express the security of the
inhabitants in that happy state, and the angel at each
gate, as a centinel or guard, expresses the same thing,
with the addition of the honour arising from such
guardianship.

WALL. 479

In Prov. xxv. 28, the man who has no command
over his own temper is compared to a city that is
broken down and without walls. He lives exposed
to all the consequences of his own turbulent passions.

Claudian has " non dabitis murum sceleri," i. e. you
shall give no harbour or security to crime.

The servants of Nabal speak of David's followers
as having been a wall to them both night and day,
'. e. were a guard or security, 1 Sam. xxv. 16. So
Ajax is called by Homer the wall or bulwark of the
Grecian band ; II. 7-

That is a beautiful expression made use of by
Isaiah ch. xxvi. 1,

" In that day shall this song be sung,
In the land of Judah we have a strong city,
Salvation shall he establish for walls and bulwarks."

Sometimes a wall denotes separation. Thus the
ceremonial law given to the Jews is called a " middle
wall of partition ;" Eph. ii. 14.

-Walls used to be dedicated with particular cere-
monies ; see Nehem. xii. 27, and were thence called
sacred.

In idolatrous countries, they were used as a place
of sacrifice. The king of Mpab offered his eldest son
upon the wall ; see, 2 Kings iii. 27-

Pomponius mentions the sacredness of walls in lib.
11, 10, "Sanctae res quoque, veluti muri et portae
civitatis quodammodo juris divini sunt, et ideo nul-
lius in bonis sunt, ideo autem muros sanctos dicimus,
quia poena capitis constituta est in eos, qui aliquid in
muros deliquerint." Whence the law of Romulus,
" Ne quis nisi per portam urbem ingreditur, msenia
sacrcsancta sunto." Let no one enter the city ex-
cept by the gate, let the walls be sacred.

480 WATCHMAN.

WATCHMAN. By watchmen are meant the
prophets of God. See Ezek. iii. 17, and xxxiii. 2, 9 ;
Isa. Iviii. 1. " They gave notice of God's dispensa-
tions, and called upon men to act suitably under
them. The true watchman or faithful prophet is dis-
tinguished from the temporizer and seducer.

In Jer. vi. 17, God declares his intention of send-
ing watchmen to give timely warning to his people,
and at the same time exhorts them to pay due atten-
tion to the warning so given them by sound of
trumpet, as the manner of watchmen was in making
public proclamation of the enemy's approach.

Lowth considers the term watchmen to be borrow-
ed from the temple service, in which there was ap-
pointed a constant watch, day and night, by the Le-
vites. The watches in the east, even to this day, are
performed by a loud cry from time to time, to mark
the hour/ and to shew that they themselves are atten-
tive to their duty. Hence the watchmen are said by
Isaiah, Iii. 8, to lift up their voice, and in Ixii. 6, not
to keep silence; and the greatest reproach to them is,
that they are dumb dogs they cannot bark dreamers
sluggards loving to slumber, ch. Ivi. 10. And he
cites the 134th Psalm as an example of the temple
watch, which was the alternate cry of two different
divisions of watchmen. By this, light is thrown on
an obscure passage in Malachi ii. 12 :

" Jehovah will cut off the man that doeth this ;
The watchman anA the answerer, from the tents of Jacob,
And him that presenteth an offering to Jehovah God of hosts."

llabbi Eliezer says, "there are three watches in the
night, and in each watch sits the holy and blessed
God,, and roars like a lion; as it is said, Jehovah

WATCHMAN.... ..WATER. 481

roars from on high, and utters his voice from his ha-
bitation.

In the room of the prophets of the Old Testament
are the ministers of the New, who are the watchmen
of the Christian Church, and " watch for their souls,
as they that must give account." And to whom it is
said, " Take heed to the flock over which the Holy
Spirit hath made you watchmen (overseers)." Hence
to the Angel of the Church of Sardis, it is written,
" Be watchful and strengthen the things which re-
main, that are ready to die." If thou wilt not watch,
I will come, upon thee as a thief, and thou shalt not
know what hour I will come upon thee.

WATER. Water is so necessary to life, that the
Oneirocritics make it, when clear, cold, and pleasant,
the symbol of great good.

Thus according to the Indian, in ch. 28, " to
dream of quenching one's thirst with pure water," de-
notes a greater joy than can be procured by any
worldly affluence. And in ch. 187, it is said, " If a
king dreams that he makes an aqueduct for his peo-
ple of pure water, and they being thirsty, drink of it,
it signifies that he will relieve, set at liberty^ and
make joyful the oppressed."

And on the other hand, in ch. 182, muddy waters
denote diseases and afflictions. Hence the torments
of wicked men after this life, were by the ancients
represented under the symbol of a lake, whose -waters
were full of mud and dung. Virgil, J5n. 1. 6, v. 296 ;
Diogen. Laert. 1. 6, 39 Plutarch de Audiend. ;
Poet. p. 19^

MANY WATERS, on account of their noise, number,

.-...-. ii

482 WATER... ...WELL.

and disorder, -and, confusion of their waves,;a^e : the
symbol of peoples, multitudes, nations, and tongues, ;

ffTheisymboLisss'o explained in*Rev. xyii. .1*5 ; and
Jer. xlvii;.2f waters. signify ; an <_army or, multitude of
men; .' '.; > r - ',-' ; -. .' .-; "'"' ;;.'; ' ' ' . ; .. ,

- '. Thescomparison of the. noise of -a multitude to the
noise; ofiimaay/or mighty watere,. is; used by Isaiah, .
in ch.'xvii. v. 12, 13, much after ithe same manner as
Homer . compares the noise of 3 a . multitude to ; the
noise : of: the waves of the sea in a storm, . Iliad, b. v.
394. The passage in Isaiah is : as follows :

" Woe to the multitude of the numerous peoples,
Who make a sound like the sound : pf the seas ; .
., And .to .the roaring of the nations,
Who make a roaring like the roaring of mighty waters.
Like the roaring of mighty waters do the nations roar,
But he shall rehuke them, and .they shall flee far away,.
,, And they shall be driven like the chaff of 'the hills before
. , the wind.
And like the gossamer before the whirlwind."

.The parallel in Homer is far inferior in grandeur :

'< The monarch spoke ; and straight a murmur rose,

Loud as the surges when the tempest blows ;
,': That dash'd on broken rocks .tumultuous roar, '

:....; And foam and thunder on the stony shore."

WELL. A pit sunk below . the surface of the
earth? 'signifies any obscure place, whence it is diffi-
cult: to draw forth any thing.

;.Iri:eastern ^countries, the -.prisons for slaves were
made 'like:pits ,of dens under, ground, and their graves
were sometimes 7 formed in a similar manner, as the
Egyptians arid Phrygians did.; .'' .; . .

Hence it comes that graves were compared to pri-
sonSj and prisons to graves. And in Isa. xxiv. 22,
the pit there mentioned is explained of a prison.

WELL WHORE. 483

-.': Anchso a prison is called Puteus, a pit, in Plautus,
Aulul.' v Acty2, Scene 5; ? :

" Viricite, verberate, in puteum condite.' 1

!<: -:-<:(.-;: y = .-.; -,.'-:. '.::. .;-. --;-.

; . So. that a well or pit without water, singly consi-
dered, ;may, as the case requires, signify either the.
grave or a prison.

; -WHORE. The Hebrew term -for whore signifies
not only a lewd woman, but an innkeeper and trading
womanj/from zoun, to feed or entertain strangers.
And because such women were addicted to prostitu-
tion^ 4he word camTe to signify a bawd r v whore.
Thus the harlot Rahab is in the Samaritan Chronicle
an hostess; and by the same word are Jerusalem and
Samaria described in the targum on Ezekiel xxiii. 44,
Where the prophet describes .them at the same time
as whores and. hostesses, entertaining all the idolatrous
strangers. iLwSo^ewy, an inn, signifies also a brothel
in the verses of Philippides, cited by Plutarch. By
this we may guess why it was so shameful to be seen
in a victualling-house, as we find it was by some
passages in ancient authors, because such places were
brothels. Hence the reproach in Jer. v. 7, they
lodge in the harlots houses. Though Blayney makes
it to signify the idol's temple, as adultery means ido-
latry. . -

From this notion of a whore being a trader and en-
tertainer of strangers, the city of Tyre, which was
the finest mart in Ihe world at that time, is, by the
prophet Isaiah, called an harlot, in ch. xxiii. 16, and
so likewise Nineveh, in Nahum iii. 4. Whoring and
trading are therefore synonymous, and to this pur-
pose, see Isa. xxiii. 17-

484 WHORE WINDS.

As uncleanness of all kinds was the frequent ad-
junct of idolatry, amongst the Babylonians, Grecians,
and others, as mentioned by Herodotus and Strabo ;
so it appears to have been among the Canaanites and
Midianites; and hence fornication, whoredom, and
adultery came to be used to denote in general idola-
trous worship and practices.

On these accounts a harlot or whore is the symbol
of a church, city, or nation, that is guilty of idolatry,
unchristian or irreligious practices, and that procures
to herself by the gains thereof great riches and power.
See Rev. xvii. 1, 2, 5 ; and see Lowman on the pas-
sage.

WINDS. Winds, as the cause of storms, are a
proper symbol of wars, and great commotions. The
raging of the winds and waves, and the madness of
the people, have long been considered as analogous.

They are unanimously so explained by the oriental
interpreters. And with Artemidorus, stormy winds
denote great dangers and troubles.

The metaphor taken from winds to denote wars, is
common in all authors. See Horace, 1. 1, ode 14,
with the commentators.

The use which the prophets make of the symbol is
to the same effect, to denote incursions of enemies
and the like.

Thus in Dan. vii. 2, 3, the prophet has a vision of
the four monarchies, which were to arise from the
wars and tumults of men, expressed by the symbol of
" four winds striving upon the great sea." The, vi-
cinity of the several kingdoms to the great sea, or
Mediterranean, so called by way of distinction from
the lesser seas or lakes in Judea, may serve to illus-!

WINDS.... ..WINE. 485

trate farther, as Wintle observes, the propriety of the
prophet's analogy. From the various tumults and
commotions with which the countries around this sea
were agitated, the four large monarchies or empires
emerged or came up ; and their various ravages,
idolatry, and tyranny, sufficiently justify the allusion
to wild beasts.

Virgil, jEn. 1, 89, has a similar passage, only there
the winds are literally meant.

" Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt, creberque procellis
Africus." :

In Jer. xlix. 36, 37, the symbol is both used and
explained.

" I will bring against Elam four winds
From the four extremities of the heavens," &c.

i. e. enemies directing their force against them from
every quarter of the heavens.

So in Jer. li. 1, a destroying wind is a destructive
war.

Wind is .sometimes applied metaphorically to doc-
trinej Ep. iv. 14 ; Heb. xiii. 9 ; James i. 6.

It is also used as the emblem of the Holy Spirit,
Acts ii. 2 ; John iii. 8.

. It is occasionally employed as an emblem of the
uncertainty of human life and its fluctuating concerns.
Thus, in Job vi. 26 vii. 7 Ps. Ixxviii. 39 ; Eccles.
v. 15 ; Jer. v. 13 ; Hosea viii. 7, &c.

Rev. vii. 1, to hold the winds that they should not
blow, is a very proper prophetic emblem of a state of
peace and tranquillity.

WINE. The Egyptian Interpreter says, " Sharp
sour wine denotes bitterness and affliction."

486 .: VWINE. v '

The Nazarites were particularly commanded to ab-
stain from wine. . See Amos ii. 1 1, 12.

Wine is used as the symbol of spiritual blessings.
See Isa. xxv. 6:

"And Jehovah God of hosts shall make
For all people, in this mountain,
A feast of delicacies, a feast of old wines, .

Of delicacies exquisitely rich, of old wines perfectly refined. "

See also Prov. ix. 5 ; Isa. Iv. 1.

Wine is also the symbol of the Divine judgments,
Ps.lx. 3:

''Thou hast made us to drink the .wine of astonishment."
This may be considered as equivalent to the cup of
fury or trembling, Isa. li. 17 5 Zech. xii. 2. For it is
usual to denote the dispensations of Providence, fa-
vourable or adverse, by some similar metaphor. See
P&. xxxvi. 8 ; Job xxi. 20 ; Isa..xxx. 20 ; Jer. xxiii.
.15; xxv. 15; Matt. xx. 22, 23 ; John xyiii. 1 1 ; , Rev.
xiv. 10.

See also Isa. Ixv. 8.

God reproaches the Jews by Isaiah, ch. i. 22,

; " Thy silver is hecoine dross, : ; .

Thy whie is mixed with water,"

an image to express adulteration. See Lowth's note
on the passage. A metaphor which Paul seems to
use 2 Cor. iul7> where he, says, "We- are not like
many who adulterate the, word of Gpd," z. e, with : hu-
man inventions or imaginations. , . . .

Wine, from its intoxicating effects, is used -to de-
note communion in the idolatries of the mystic Baby-
lon, Rev. xiv. 8. Comp. Je"r. li. 7.

Lees, or dregs of wine, figuratively signify Divine
judgments, Ps. Ixxv. 8 ; Isa. li. 17 &c.

WINE...;..WINE-PliESS. 487

In Jerem. xlviii. 11, it denotes permanence in one
situation: ; .

-.-... . "Moab hath settled upon his lees."
By this allegory, Moab is represented as having en-
joyed singular advantages from having constantly re-
mained in his : own. country ever since he became a
people.

Hosea Hi. 1, " And love flagons of wine ;" i. e. to
drink wine in the temples of their idols. Amos ii. 8;
Judges ix. 27-

WINE-PRESS, among the Israelites, was like a
threshingrfloor ; and therefore we read that Gideon
was threshing in one of them, Judges vi. 11. The
Septuagint has it, 'gQ<iw en **&

The form of it seems to have been this : suppose
a bank of earth raised in a convenient circumference,
or else a floor sunk below the surface of the ground
about it, that the grapes and. juice may be kept in :
then on one side a pit was sunk much lower than the
floor, to place the vats to receive the new pressed
juice falling into them. This floor was the wine-
press. Hence" we may easily understand why our
Saviour expresses the making of a wine-press by dig-
ging; as also Isaiah in ch. v. . " ' ' ".'

The meaning of the symbol is very easy. The In-
dian Oneirocritic, in ch. 196, explains it of great con-
quest, and, by consequence^ muck slaughter. It is so
used in Isa. Ixiii. 3,

" I have trodden the wine-press alone,
And of the people there was none with me.
And I trod them in' mine' anger,
And I trampled them in mine indignation,
And their life-blood was sprinkled upon my garments,.
And 1 have stained all mine appareL"

488 WINE-PRESS.... ..WING.

And in Lam. i. 15, the destruction of Judah is re-
presented under this type :

" Jehovah hath trodden down all my valiant ones in the midst

of me;
He hath called an assembly against me, to crush my young

men ;

Jehovah hath trodden the virgin, the daughter of Judah, as
in a wine-press."'

And the symbol is extremely proper. The pressure
of the grapes till their blood comes out, as their juice
is called in Deut. xxxii. 14, aptly representing great
pressure or affliction, and effusion of blood

Rev. xiv. 19, " The great wine-press of the wrath
of God."

To tread a wine-press, as before remarked* is a
prophetic description of destruction. The images in
this vision are very strong and expressive. The
largest wine-presses were used to be in some places
out of the city. So in ver. 20, " The wine-press
was trodden without the city," and seems to intimate
the great numbers that shall be involved in this gene-
ral destruction. This judgment seems still to be fu-
ture* No past period or event appears exactly appli-
cable to it. It must be therefore left to time more
fully to explain it.

The wine-press is sometimes the symbol of abun-
dance of good. Thus Prov. iii. 10, " Thy presses
shall burst out with new wine."

WING. Wings are the symbol of defence and
protection, and are taken from the action of the pa-
rent bird, when her young ^are in danger. Hence
Jesus says of Jerusalem, Matt, xxiii. 37> " How often
would I have gathered thee, as a hen gathereth her

WING. 489

brood under her wings." And the Psalmist says, Ps.
xxxvi. 7> " The sons of men put their trust under the
shadow of thy wings." And Boaz thus addresses
Ruth, ch. ii. 12, " Under whose wings (. e. God's)
thou art come to trust."

That the term wing is sometimes used in an adverse
sense, is true. See Jerem. xlviii. 40, and xlix. 22 ; arid
compare Deut. xxviii. 49-

That it has many other metaphorical meanings,
such as,

The flanks of an army, and the arrangement of its
battalions, Isa. viii. 8.

The extremities of the earth, and remote regions,
Job xxxvii. 3 ; xxxviii. 13 ; Isa. xi. 12 ; xxiv. 16 ;
Ezek. vii. 2, &c.

The extremity, hem, fringe, or tuft of a garment,
Num. xv. 38 ; Ruth iii. 9 ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 5 ; Jer. ii.
34 ; Haggai ii. 12 ; Zech. viii. 23, &c.

The beams of the sun, Mai. iv. 2. An opposite
mode of speaking is found in Virgil, Mn. 1. 8,

" Night comes on, and covers the earth with its dusky wings."

The wings of the wind, i. e. its swift and impetuous
motion, 2 Sam. xxii. 11 ; Ps. xviii. 11 ; Ps. civ. 3.

That it has these various meanings ; in short, that
it signifies any thing that projects, as the wing of a
bird from its body, is plain, from numerous passages
of Scripture. Still the symbolical meaning above
assigned to it, as its most general figurative applica-
tion, is correct. See Ps. xvii. 8 ; Ps. xci. 4, &c.

Jolaus, in Euripides, quoted by Lancaster, to ex-
press that the children of Hercules were under his
protection after their father's death, says, " they were

490 WING.

under his wings." And Megara* '^peaking of i the
same children, says, " she preserved' them under her
wings, as a hen her young ones. Hercules Flirens.

v.7l. , ;, .-_,.-..' :.'. .' ..-I-; ,:'.! ;

The Hebrew term for wing, c0wep, f i signifies a 'co-
vering, and, as a covering, is protection V so the wing
is a; proper symbol of the same, just as a tabernacle is
a covering in hot countries, and is therefore f a symbol
of protection. So the fortress in Babylon v was called
Trieste, wings, from the protection it pretended to afford.
On account of wings > being the symbol of ? protection ,
some of the Egyptians called their god, whom they
looked upon as everlasting and immortal, Cneph, that
is, the whig, or Cnuphis, as Strabo writes it,' with the
Greek termination. And they also represented him
with awing upon his head, as the symbol of his
royalty ; the chief notion of the Deity and of kings,
being that of protectors. And therefore the true God
is, on this account, styled, in 1 Tim. iw 10, "The
protector of all men, but especially of those that be-
, lieye." ...-See Daubuz.

Another use of wings is to carry away or help in
flight ; and in this case also, wings are the symbols
of protection. Thusj in Bxbd.- xix^ 4, God says to
tlie Israelites, after he had Delivered them from Pha-
raoh, and 'caused them to: pass safely into We wilder-
ness^ -"; Ye ; have seen -what : I did to the Egyptians,
and how I bare you ' on eagles* '' wings, and brought
you to myself.". : The 'same image is beautifully ex-
panded in- Deut.xxxii. 11^12, ;

" As ah eagle stiweth up her nest,
. Fluttereth : oyer her young, >
Spreading abroad her wings,
Taketh them, beareth them on her wings;

WING. 491

So Jehovah alone did lead him, .

And there was no strange God with him."

Wings, when used to fly upwards, are the symbols
of exaltation. Thus, Isaiab xl. 31, They shall
mount up with wings as eagles '" L e. they shall be
highly exalted.

Ps. cxxxix. 9i

" Should I lift up my wings to the dawn,
Or dwell in the utmost extremity of the sea."

By the dawn, meaning the East; by the sea, the
West ; in other words, Should I take my flight east-
ward or westward, the result would be the same.
And, as Merrick observes, there is no more impro-
priety in attributing to a man wings, than horns.

The passage in Isaiah xviii. 1, " Ho ! thou land
shadow'd with wings 1" has always been considered
an obscure one. Lowth translates it,

"Ho to the land of the winged cymbal !"

arid defends his interpretation in a note. But Vi-
tringa's mode of explaining it, as quoted by Park-
hurst, seems preferable ; he explains the Wings here
mentioned of the chains of mountains, which it is well
known border, and bound on each side, the long val-
ley of the Nile, so that Egypt is overshadowed or
protected, both from the "rays of the sun^ and from
invasion, on the west towards Lybia, and on the east
towards Arabia ; arid which chains of mountains, in
running from the ; south towards the north, diverge on
each side to a greater distance, like two wings; See
Shaw, Pococke, Egmorit, arid Hayriiari's Travels.

Junius and Tremellius give nearly the same idea,
understanding by wings, the coasts or shores of the

492 WING.

country, which are inclosed with high and shady
mountains, such as Strabo affirms to be in the neigh-
bourhood of the Red Sea.

While Glassius interprets wings in the above pas-
sage, as meaning the " sails of ships," which are their
extreme parts, and are spread out in the shape of
wings, and are the instruments of swift motion over
the waters, when blown by winds. They also afford
a shade to sailors. So in Virgil, Mn. 3, 520, " Ve-
lorum pandimus alas." We spread forth the wings of
our sails.

Dan. ix. 27, " The desolating wing of detesta-
tion."

By which phrase is to be understood the Roman
army and its legions, who were detestable on account
of their idolatry. Compare Matt. xxiv. 1 5, with Luke
xxi. 20.

There is another reason why Daniel may use the
term " Wing" here, as well as why he assigns the
wings of a bird or fowl to two of the four mystical
beasts, which, in his vision, represented the four great
monarchies. For by this picture, the devastation
which these monarchies were to bring on other na-
tions, and the speed and force with which they would
act, were strongly and beautifully represented to those
who understood symbolical writing.

The stretching out of wings signifying action or
design, the names of these symbols were naturally
used for the things signified by them. Hence Isaiah,
predicting the invasion of Judea by the king of Assy-
ria, has used that expression, ch. viii. 8,

" And the extension of his wings shall be
Over tjie full breadth of thy land, O Immanuel !"

WING. 493

By the like metaphor, Jeremiah predicted the de-
solation of Moab, ch. xlviii. 40,

" Behold, like an eagle shall he fly,
And shall spread forth his wings over Moab."

Maimonides, in his More Nev. p. 1, c. 49, says,
" Observe that all things, which are moved by a very
rapid motion, are, on account of their celerity, said
to fly." Hence Tertullian also says, " Omnis spiri-
tus ales," every spirit is winged. And hence Mer-
cury, the messenger of the gods, is said to be winged.
Euripides applies the term to weapons, in Orestes, v.
274, " The winged arrows of bows ;" and Virgil, in
./En. 1. 5, has, " Swifter than the winds and the wings
of the thunderbolt" And Claudian, 1. 2, de Rapt,
v. 218,

; Jupiter sethere summo

Pacificus rubri torsisset fulminis alas. 1

Euripides in Hecuba, v. 70, applies the term to
dreams:

" O venerable Earth,
Mother of Dreams, having black wings."

And to spectres, in the same play, v. 704,

*' A spectre passed by me, having dark wings."

, Hence we find them ascribed to the seraphim in
Isaiah, ch. vi., whose wings, six in number, were
used for a threefold purpose ; to cover the face, to
cover the feet, and to fly.

And God himself is said to " walk upon the wings
of the wind," Ps. civ. 3. The theology of the Gen-
tiles attributed wings to their deities. Thus Virgil,
Mn. 5, v. 657,

" Cum Dea se paiibus per coelum sustulit alas."

49 WING...WITHIN AND WITHOUT...WOMAN.

- And- Homer . .decks his h,ero Achilles in a similar
manner, H. 19, , ', . -\'-,-' . : n . , ; .

" The chief beholds himself with wondering' eyes -.; ' "
Hisanns he' poises, and his motion tries ;
Buoy'd by some inward.force he seems to swim, -
JOiA. feels a pinion lifting every limb."

WITHIN AND WITHOUT. These, in Scrip-
ture; style, mean the Jews arid the Gentiles, theone
within; 'and the .other without, the Mosaical Law and
Covenant. ) Thus in Deut. xxv^ 5^ " 'The .wife of the
dead shallnot mwry without -wnto a stranger.?
ni Aiidithusin Delation to those, who; were Christians,
or ; within ;lhe Church? ' and ; those v who were not so,
Paul. says, .1 Gor;,y; 12j }".Dd.not ! .ye judge them that
are within ? But them that are without God judgeth."

Col. iv. 5 ?i " Walk in wisdom toward, them that are
without'* i. ' e. toward unconverted persons. And the
same in 1 Thess. iv. 1-2?

And this language is used in reference to the New
Jerusalem, Rev. xxii. 15, " For, without are dogs and
sorcerers," &c.

WOMAN. Woman, in the symbolical language,
is frequently the symbol of a city or body politic ; of
a nation or kingdom.

Thus in JEschylus, Persas 181, the monarchy of
Persia, and the Republwrof Greece,' are represented
in a 'symbolical dream by two womem :

They who are acquainted with medals and inscrip-
tions, many of which are symbolical, know that cities,
as even : Rome, irequehtly^ were represented by >women.
And so in like manner, statues in the shape of women
were made to represent cities. * ,

In the ancient Prophets, the symbol is very often

WOMAN. 496

used -for,.the, church: or nation ;of rthe Jews. Thus in
Ezekiel, ch. xvL there is a . long : description of that
people under the symbol of a female child, growing
up by several degrees to the stature of a woman, and
then married to God, by entering into covenant with
him.

And therefore when the Israelites acted contrary
to : that covenant,, by forsaking Qod and following
idols, then (they .became properly represented by the
symbol of an adulteress or harlot, that offers herself to
allcomers.; Ezek. xvi. 32, 38; xxiii. 45 ; Hoseaiii. 1 ;
fea. i. 21; Jer. ii. 20; Ezek. xvi. 15, 16, 28, 35, &c.
Hosea i. 2.

And adultery itself/or fornication in a married state,
becomes the symbol of idolatry, as in Jer. iii, 8, 9 ;
Ezek. xxiii. 37? and ch. xvi. 26, 29.

There is. a very mysterious. prophecy in Zech. Y. ; 5,
&c. where. a woman is represented as sitting in an
ephah, and as .carried through the air by two others..
It is not easy to say what meaning should be attach-
ed to it. Newcome says, " The meaning of the vision
seems to be,, that the r Babylonish . captivity had hap-
pened on account of the wickedness committed by the
Jews ; and that a like dispersion would befal them,
if they relapsed into like crimes." Thus the whole
chapter is an awful admonition that multiplied curses,
and particularly dispersion and captivity, .would be
the punishment of national guilt.

But Capellus's interpretation well deserves atten-
tion. He considers verse 8, as denoting that God
treads on the neck of wickedness, and restrains it
from expatiating; and verse 9, 10, 11, as signifying
that God was propitious to the Jews, and transferred

496 WOMAN.;.. ..WRITE.

the punishment of iniquity to the Babylonians, whom
the weight of the Divine vengeance should ever de-
press. It may be added to the remark of this critic,
that Babylon was soon to suffer a signal calamity
from the reigning Persian monarch.

See a dissertation on this subject in the Emblemata
Sacra of Ewaldus, v. 8, p. 508, &c.

For an explanation of that other vision in Rev. xii.
1, &c. see the Dissertation of the same author, and
Lowman on the Revel, in loc. where the church is
represented by the figure of a woman clothed with
the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her
head a crown of twelve stars.

Woman is sometimes used metaphorically for weak
.and effeminate persons, as Isa. iii. 12 ; xix. 16 ; Jer.l.
37 ; H. 30 ; Nahum iii. 13.

WRITE, signifies to publish or notify, because
this is the first intention of writing; and at first no
writings were made but upon pillars or other monu-
ments, merely to notify things.

Thus when God says in Isaiah Ixv. 6, " Behold it
is written before me ;" it immediately follows as syno-
nymous, " I will not keep silence.'*

And in Jeremiah xxii. 30, it is said, " Write this
man childless ;" i. e. publish and let all men know,
that this man shall be childless.

. And hence, because writing is publishing, there-
fore an author not read, is, with Martial, one that
hath not written,

" Versiculos in me narratur scribere Cinna,
Non scribit, cujus caraina nemo legit."

I, 3, ep. 9.

WRITE. 497

By the notification of things, the effect intended is
brought about ; and in this sense, to write is to effect.
Solomon says, Prov. vii. 3,

" Bind my words upon thy fingers,
Write them upon the tablet of thine heart."

He of course meant that such precepts should be un-
derstood figuratively ; and yet it was on such texts
as these that the Pharisees founded their practice of
binding Phylacteries upon their foreheads ; See Exod.
xiii. 16 ; Deut. vi. 5 ; xi. 18. And hence, perhaps,
also the popular phrase among us, of having a thing
at the finger's ends, when we are perfectly acquaint-
ed with it. (Durell.)

ERRATA.

Introduction, p. 5. The Author was led to class " Walchii Antiquitates

Symbolics," among the works illustrative of this subject, merely from its

title, having never been able to meet with it. He now, however, suspects,

that it relates rather to Ancient Creeds. Respecting the others, there is no

. error.

P. 134, for 2 Lam. read 2 Sam.
P. 278, /or 2 Lam. read 2 Sam.
P. 394, for Psalm Ixiv. read xliv.
P. 168, /or Diodom, reed Diodorus,
P. 350, for Thacemas, read Thaumas,

Some other mistakes have occurred owing to the Author's distance from
the press, but he hopes none of material importance.

INDEX

OF

SCRIPTURES EXPLAINED OR REFERRED TO.

Ch. Ver.
2 1
2 18
3
10
17
1

11
8 11
8 11
10
11
11
11

4

4
7
7

2.
1.
4.
7.
14 22.

18 27.

19 26.
19 26
19 28

24 2

25 23
27 28
27 40
30 30

30 30

31 7

32 30
34 3
37

37
38 14.
41 4.
41 41.

41 49.

42 9

43 16

7,
9.

GENESIS.

Page Under
.261 Hostpfh
. 302 Marriage.
~ 318 Nakedness.
-477 Vbice;

- 69 Build;
-261 House.

1 Abyss.
- 143 Dove.

- 331 Olive-tree.
215 Gog.

155 Earth.
_ 69 Build.

- 390 Seven;

- 357 Right hand.
- 26 Ashes.

- 340 Pillar.
-367 Salt.

- 409 Smoke.

- 447 Thigh.

- 297 Love.
- 132 Dew.

- 433 Sword.
-* 172 Feet.
-262 House.
~ 445 Ten.

- 169 Face.

- 297 Love.

- 343 Posture.

- 422 Star.

- 474 Veil.

450 Throne.

206 Gem.

370 Sand.

319 Nakedness.

262 House

GENESIS continued.

Ch. Ver.

Page Under

eaven.

48 16 -

^321 Name.

49 9-

- 287 Lion.

JSS.

49 10 ~

364 Rod.

49 11 ~

50 Blood.

49 14 ~

- 31 Ass.

49 23-

- 58 Bow.

EXODUS.

^e.

1 21^

- 70 Build.

1 21-

-261 House.

3 2-

- 75 Burn.

8 2~

-340 Pillar.

md.

3 3-

-438 TaiL

4 22-

- 413 Son.

6 6-

- 23 Arm.

7 1-.

7 9~

345 Prophecy.
- 438 Tail.

8 19^

- 234 Hand.

9 23.

- 223 Hail.

12 22.

.- 263 Hyssop.

15 15.

-,351 Ram.

17 9.

_ 365 Rod.

19 4.

- 490 Wings.

19 14.

.-,152 Eagle.

19 16.
19 16.

.- 452 Trumpet.
-464 Thunder.

21 14.

257 Horn.

24 5.

180 First-born.

31 18-

234 Hand.

32 4.

- 78 Calf.

32 27-

-. 447 Thigh,

32 32-

-. 55 Book.

ess.

33 20-

-. 168 Face.

38 23-

340 Pomegranate.

500

INDEX.

LEVITICUS.

DEUTERONOMY continued.

Ch.

Ver. Pace Under

Ch.

Ver.

Page Under

7

30

66 Breast.

32

17-

-131 Desart.

11

13

85 Carcase.

32

24-.

- 263 Hunger.

11

29

108 Crocodile.

32

24-.

-441 Teeth.

16

29

263 Hunger.

33

17 -.

- 250 Horn.

17

11

-. 51 Blood.

33

28-

- 189 Fountain.

19

22

227 Hair.

19

28

183 Forehead.

JOSHUA.

23

40

333 Palm.

1

8-

- 163 Eat.

26

12

342 Posture.

6

16-.

- 465 Trumpet.

26

25

.433 Sword.

10

12-.

,.403 Silence.

26

26

420 Staff.

24

3-.

- 304 Measure.

NUMBERS.

JUDGES.

3

45

180 Firstborn/

5

10-.

..342 Hostofheaven.

4

34

455 Time.

5

10,.

,.261 Posture.

10

2

464 Trumpet.

5

31-.

-431 Sun.

10

31

167 Eyes.

6

11-.

-487 Winepress.

13

3

244 Heat.

9

15-.

..393 Shadow.

18

19

367 Salt.

11

35-.

-354 Bend.

19

6

416 Sores.

9

46-.

- 312 Mountain.

19
19

6
16

~ 263 Hyssop.
379 Sepulchre.

17

5..

- 446 Teraphim.

22

39

98 City.

RUTH.

24

4

-.377 See.

4

11-

70 Build.

24

17

~~ 420 Star.

27

18

234 Hand.

1 SAMUEL.

'" ' .

7

12-.

- 426 Stones.

DEUTERONOMY.

9

9-

- 377 See.

4

20

193 Furnace.

24

6-

-329 OiL

8

3

262 Hunger.

25

16-

-479 Wall.

10

6

355 Rend.

10

8

342 Posture.

2 SAMUEL.

11

12

^-.167 Eyes.

1

18-.

- 57 Bow.

18

15

345 Prophecy.

1

21-

- 134 Dew.

20

5

'69 Build.

1

21 -

- 396 Shield.

23

18

138 Dog.

7

6-.

- 442 Temple.

25

5

494 Within.

7

11-.

-262 House.

25

9

418 Spitting.

7

13-

-278 Lamp.

28

10

321 Name.

8

2..

- 353 Reed.

28

13

437 Tail.

20

8-.

-426 Stones.

28

23

65 Brass.

23

4-.

- 429 Sun.

28

49

153 Eagle.

28

35

415 Sores.

1 KINGS.

29

20

410 Smoke.

11

36-

-278 Lamp.

29

23

368 Salt.

17

12-.

- 470 Two.

32

2

133 Dew

19

18-.

- 275 Kiss.

32

2

346 Bain.

--20

11-.

-210 Girdle.

32

11

152 Eagle.

22

11-.

- 266 Iron.

32

11

490 Wings.

22

11-.

- 250 Horn.

INDEX.

501

2 KINGS.

Ch. Ver. Page Under
2 12 91 Chariot.

6 17 92 Ditto.

7 2 378 See.

11
15
17
21
28
28
29

13
30

12
12

1 CHRONICLES.

19 51 Blood.
2776 Brass.

4 444 Temple.
16 247 Heaven.

2 443 Temple.
18 96 Cherubim.
24 447 Thigh.

2 CHRONICLES.
5 367 Salt.

20 415 Sores.

14.
14.

7

7

EZRA.

.368 Salt.. .
.392 Seven.

NEHEMIAH.
15 317 Myrtle.
27 67 Build.
27 479 Wall.

1 14.
4 1.

2 8.

3 5^
3 8
3 13.
3 17-

3 18.

4 .4.

5 2.
5 3-.
5 12.

2.
12.
9 7,
12 18.

12 31.

13 25.

14 12.
14 17.
18 15.

ESTHER.
,391 Seven.
. 26 Ashes.

JOB.

.28 Ashes..
. 393 Shadow.
.108 Crocodile.
.355 Rest..
. 407 Sleep.
. 407 Ditto.
.277 Knee.
,272 Kill..
, 366 Boot.
, 389 Seven.

- 393 Shadow.

. 198 Crocodile.
.376 Sealing.
. 209 Girdle.
~210 Ditto.
-281 Leaves.
~ 407 Sleep.

- 374 Sealing.

~ 68 Brimstone.

JOB continued.
Ch. Ver. Paec Under

18 16

366 Boot.

19 28

366 Ditto.

21 12

235 Harp.

21 24

336 Paps.

22 30

269 Island.

24 17

393 Shadow.

26 13
29 15

386 Serpent.
172 Feet.

29 22

346 Bain.

30 10

418 Spitting.

30 11

210 Girdle.

31 27

275 Kiss.

34 6

24 Arrow.

36 19

220 Gold.

37 1

454 Thunder.

37 2

478 Voice.

37 7

376 Sealing.

37 9

244 Heat.

38 6
38 7

466 Trumpet.
423 Star.

38 22

223 Hail.

39 5

32 Ass.

39 30

85 Carcase.

41 passim
41 15

Ill Crocodile.
399 Shield..

PSALMS.

2 12

. 276 Kiss.

5 13

. 397 Shield.

7 12

. 56 Bow.

10 15

. 23 Arm.

12 6_

-406 Silver.

12 6^

.389 Seven.

12 7~

. 194 Furnace.

14 5_

. 424 Sting.

17 13 _

. 433 Sword.

18 10 _

. 96 Cherubim.

19 4_

. 436 Tabernacle.

22 12 _

. 71 Bull.

23 4_
26 6^

. 470 Valley.
.230 Hand.

29 3_

.452 Thunder.

32 1_

. 417 Sores. -

38 8_

. 361 Biver.

40 3_

.414 Song.

42 2~

. 169 Face.

42 3_

,.439 Tears.

42 23^.

~ 409 Sleep.

44 22,.

~ 394 Sheep.

45 5^

~ 257 Horse.

502

INDEX.

PSALMS continued.

PSALMS continued.

Ch. Ver.

Page Under

Ch. Ver.

"Page Under

45 6-

25 Arrow.

102 9.

28 Ashes.

45 7-

-328 Oil.

103 15.

-~ 243 Heat.

46 9-

74 Burn.

104 1.

_202 Garments.

46 9-

. 395 Shield.

105 15.

329 oa.

49 5-

^235 Harp.

106 19.

- 78 Calf.

49 12-

^262 House.

107 4.

_ 69 Build.

49 14-

- 430 Sun.

107 10.

~.265 Iron.

51 7-

-411 Snow.

110 3.

-.134 Dew.

51 9-

- 416 Sores.

112 10.

-.441 Teeth.

56 1-

- 142 Dove.

119 103.

-. 163 Eat.

56 6-

-441 Teeth.

119 105.

-.286 Lamp.

57 2-

-355 Best.

119 105.

-.278 Light.

58 3-
60 3-

-424 Sting.
- 486 Wine.

110 176 .
121 6-

-. 394 Sheep.
-.245 Heat.

60 5-,

- 303 Measure.

127 4.

25 Arrow.

60 12 -

-467 Tread.

128 3.

-.331 Olive-tree.

61 3-

- 160 Tower.

132 17.

-. 254 Horn.

65 7-

- 372 Sea.

133 3.

136 Dew. '

65 10-

- 362 River.

137 1.

-. 237 Harp.

66 18 -

-378 See.

139 9.

-.491 Wings.

68 9-

- 348 Bain.

140 3.

_ 424 Sting.

68 10 -
68 14-

- 362 River.
-411 Snow.

144 6.
144 8..

-.286 Lightning.
-. 358 Right-hand

68 17-

- 96 Cherubim.

147 4.

-. 321 Name.

68 25-

-414 Song.

147 16.

-. 412 Snow.

68 26-

- 190 Fountain.

148 7.

-. 385 Serpent.

68 80-

- 71 Bull.

68 80-

- 110 Crocodile.

PROVERBS.

72 6-

- 362 River.

1 9.

-. 90 Chain.

73 6-

- 89 Chain.

4 18.

-, 429 Sun.

74 13-

-.109 Crocodile.

5 16.

-,189. Fountain.

74 14-

- 181 Flesh.

5- 18.

-.189 Ditto.

75 8-

-486 Wine.

6 6.

-, 43 Bee.

75 8-

- 116 Cup.

6 .13.

-. 174 FeeU

78 25-

-297 Manna.

7 3.

497 Write.

78 71-

-352 Ram. .

8 15.

-. 273 King.

79- 1-

- 83 Carcase.

9 1.

261 House.

79 12-

- 389 Seven.

13 14.

-, 189 Fountain.

80 1-

-352 Ram.

14 4.

-, -77 Calf.

80 1-

- 451 Throne.

14 11.

-. 444 Temple.

80 8-

-196 Garden.

18 4.

-. 188 Fountain.

80 15-

-476 Vineyard.

18 10.

-.461 Tower.

84 7-

- 470 Valley.

J8 .11.

-. 219 Gold.

84 12-

- 481 Sun.

21 25.

-. 272 Kill.

85 2-

- 417 Sores.

22 20.

-. 448 Three.

88 11-

- 73 Burial.

^25 28.

-. 479 Wall.

89 4-

- 70 Build.

26 2fi.

-. 389 Seven.

89 18-

- 400 Shield.

27 17-

-. 266 Iron.

91 5

25 Arrow.

30 1.

-. 345 Prophecy.

32 12 ~

- 334 Palm.

30 8.

_ 171 Feed.

INDEX.

503

PBO
Ch. Ver.

VEEBS .continued.
Page Under

ISAI
Ch. Ver.

LAH continued.
Page Under

30 14.

440 Teeth.

7 18-

- 42 Bee.

31 21.

-.412 Snow...

7 20-

-352 Hair.

31 24.

-.211 Girdle.

7 20-.

.227 Razor.

7 21_

-470 Two.

ECCLBSIASTES.

8 7-

-358 River.

5 12.

.- 406 Sleep.

9 4-

- 74 Burn.

6 3.

72 Burial.

9 14-

-437 Tail.

6 12.

393 Shadow.

9 20-

-24 Arm.

* 8.

106 Colour.

10 15-

- 28 Ax.

12 2.

306 Cloud.

10 33-

- 29 Ditto.

12 2.

102 Moon.

11 1-

- 59 Branch.

12 3.

408 Sleep.

11 5..

-211 Girdle.

12 4.
12 6

, . 414 Song.
220 Gold.

11 6-
11 6_

- 281 Leopard.
-277 Lamb.

12 6

406 Silver.

11 7-

- 39 Bear.

12 6.

190 Fountain.

11 9-

310 Mountain.

11 10-

366 Root.

CANTICLES.

11 15-

- 361 River.

1 9

259 Horse.

13 10-

- 165 Eclipse.

1 9

93 Chariot.

14 13-

246 Heaven.

1 10

91 Chain.

14 17-

-428 Sun.

3 9

93 Chariot.

14 19-

63 Branch.

4 3

340 Pomegranate.

14 31-

- 409 Smoke.

4 12

374 Sealing.

15 1-

- 326 Night.

8 1

.341 Pomegranate.

15 2-

-.228 Hair.

17 5-

-. 240 Harvest.

ISAIAH. .

17 12,

- 482 Water.

1 6

415 Sores.

18 1-

- 491 Wings.

1 18

105 Colour.

18 2-

304 Measure.

1 21

495 Woman.

19 1-

~ 103 Cloud.

1 22

486 Wine..

19 5-

14 Abyss.

2 2

310 Mountain.

19 15.

-.437 Tail.

2 13

88 Cedar.

19 23-

-.448 Three.

2 13

326 Oak.

21 5.

-. 396 Shield.

2 14

315 Mountain.

21 7~

-. 93 Chariot.

2 15

461 Tower.

21 10-

-, 450 Thrashing.

4 1

321 Name.

22 1-

-.470 Valley.

4 1

388 Seven.

22 21-

-.211 Girdle.

4 4

75 Burn.

22 22.

-.269 Key.

4 5

102 Smoke.

23 4.

-.268 Island.

4 5

410 Cloud.

23 10.

-.210 Girdle.

4 6

393 Shadow.

23 16.

483 Whore.

5 1

476 Vineyard.

24 8.

-.235 Harp.

5 12

-.238 Harp.

24 19.

151 Earthquake.

S 17

210 Girdle.

24 22.

-482 Well.

5 26

42 Bee.

25 . 6.

486 Wine.

6 1

451 Throne.

25 8.

438 Tears.

6 4

7 4

175 Fire.
459 Torch.

26 17.
26 19.

461 Travailing.
357 Resurrection.

7 8

98 City.

26 19.

137 Dew.

504

INDEX.

ISAIAH continued.

Ch. Ver. ;
27 1.
27 3.

27 10.

28 2.
28 2.
28 2.

28 27.

29 1.
29 6.
29 11.

29 21..

30 6.
30 21,;
30 25.
30 30.
30 .32.,
30 33.
30 33.
32 15.
32 19r,

32 19.

33 9..
33, 15,
33 18.
33 21.
34

34
34
35
35
35
36
36
37 24

40 3'
40

40

41 15.
41 19.

41 19.

42 3.
42 3.

42 6.

43 14.

44 3.
44 5.
44 14.
44 -20;.
44 22*
44 27.

9.
1,
6.
8.
3.
6.

6

_.,- Undet.
_ 108iCrocodile.
.133 Dew....
.128; Desart

.452; Thunder.
; River..

.450: Thrashing.
.290 Lion..,.
. 453.Thunder.
.375 Sealing.
.204 Gates.,
.384 Serpent.
.477; Voice.
.461 Tower.

.238, Harp..
. 68 Valley.
. 472 Brimstone.
.129 Desart.

.187 'Forest.
,128 Desart.
. 50 Blood.
.460 Tower.
.400 Ship.
.1651 Eclipse.
.458' Time...
. 68 Brimstone.
.130 Desart.

.129. Desart.
.262 House.
.358 Reed.
^187, Forest.
.129 Desart.
.222 Grass.
J49r Wings.

* 450 Thrashing.
-129 Desart.
..317 Myrtle.
..352 Reed..
i-,411 Smoke.

> 430 Sun.
^ 401 Ship.
..347 Rain.
^186 Forehead.
^327 Oak.
i. ' 27 Ashes,
-, 102 Cloud.

- ol4 Ahyss.

ISAIAH continued.;.

Ch. Ver.
44 27-

1.
1.

45
45

45 2

45 5..

47 1~

47 3-

48 4.

48 4_

49 2_
49 2-
49 9-
49 10-

49 23-

50 6-

51 3-
51 9-
51 9-
51 10-
51 15-

51 15-

52 7.

53 5-

53 7-

54 1-
54 11-

54 11.

55 10.

55 13.

56 10.
58 1.
58 5.
58 8.

58 1U

59 17.

60 1.
60 5.
60 8.
60 8.

60 11.

61 3.
61 .4;
61 11
62

^2

2,
3.

63 4.

63 9.

64 6.

Page < Under!
'21<KGirdle7

, 65 Brass.
. 211; Girdle.-
i 476 "Virgin. ':>.
, 319'Nakedness.

^/Brass.,.
25J Arrow..

430 'Sun. .

.308 'Mother.

. 418 -Spitting.

. 194 Garden.

. 409 Sleep.

. 108 Crocodile.

. 13 'Abyss,-

.248 Heaven.
OAK / Heaven and
^l Earth.

.173 Feet

.416 'Sores,. " .

.277 Lamb,.

. 302 Marriage.

.208 Gem.

,346 Rain.
317 Myrtle.
.139 Dbg.,
.4961 Write.
26 ; Hunger.

>j/*\ T> ;_.

.195 Garden.
. 67 Breastplate.
.429 Sun. -.,
.372^864.
.100 Cloud,
^144; Dove.
1.203^ Gates.
.27. Ashes.
^70 Build..
.195 Garden.
.320 Name.
.114 Crown.
^487' Winepress.
. 458 Time.-
i 169 Face.
.281 Leaves.

INDEX.

505

Ch.

Ver.

&* UL**~ "WA* V *** **%* **

^Page ; .-Under.

V A*A1

Ch. Ver.

Page : Under

65

6,

496 Write. .

15

12

^.265- Iron.

65

17.

245 IHeaven;

15.

16

163 Eat,

66

1.

i- 452 Throne.

16

7

119 Cup. -

66

3.

140>D6gY.

17

1

266 Iron.

66

19.

,57-Bow.~

18

14

:412 Snow.

.- .. ' ..' '-- '" ' *

22

10

438 'Tears.

JKRKMIAH- .>*>

22

19

^, 31 Ass.

1

11.

365 lEbd.,

22

19

:74 Burial.

1

18.

340vPfflar.

22

29

449 'Three.

2

2.

'.17 -Adultery.

22

30

^.496 -Write.

2

6.

128 Death.

23

5

60 Branch.

2

25.

172 Feel.

25

15

117 Cup.-

2

34.

327 Oak.- ,

27

5

197 Garden.

3

8.

495 . Woman.

31

12

195 Garden. :

3

14.

.. 17^ Adultery.

31

15

438: Tears.-,

3

23.

311 Mountain.

31

15.

^33 Babylon.

4

7.

289 Lion.

31

19

!447^ Thigh.

4

13.

100 Cloud.

31

40

^.472' Valley.

4

19.

45 .Belly... ..

32

35

2731 King..

4

19.

465 Trumpet.

34

18.

i_.78 ; Cal.-

4

23.

O v<7 f Heaven and
~". 247 l Earth.

46
47

43.
2

^.29P Locusts.
_ 482',:Water.

5

6.

28 Leopard.

47.

5

-^.228iHair,

5

7.

483 Whore.

47

5

404-Silence.

5

22.

.^.370, Sand...

47

6

^ 435 r Sword.

5

28.

171 Fat. .,

48

11

487 Wine.-

6

9.

~. 221 -Grapes.

48

25

^ 251 Horn.

6

17.

480 ; Watchman.

48

40

^.154 -Eagle.

6

28.

: 64 Brass... ,

49

10

319 -Nakedness.

7

34.

~. 405 Silence.

49

35

57 Bow..

8

7.

426; Stork..

49

36

485 Wind.

8

20.

^ 242> Harvest.

50

26

_ 72BuU.-

9

2.

dSOLDesart.

50

27

_ 72 Ditto.

9

7.

-*i 194- Furnace,

51

1

485 Wind.

9

15".

45 Belly..-

51

7.

115 Gup.. .

9

21.

l26,Death..

51

20

28>Ax. .

10

16.

364 Rod.-..

51

25

311- Mountain.

10

20.

^444; Temple.

51

33

_240i Harvest.

12

9;

.. 45, Birds...

51

34

385- Serpent.

12

10.

.406fSleep..

51

42

372tSea. ....

13

1.

212 Girdle.

51

55

404 Silence.

.13

.13.

I47:Drunk.

.:" . > ".';". . .

13

16

120 Darkness.

LAMENTATIONS.

13

19.

*~204r.Gates.-

1

15

^_ 488 Winepress.

13

23.

281; Leopard.

1

.20

_ 127 Death.

13

27.

~*. 1 17; Adultery.

2

15

^u 84 Carcase.

14

2.

474; Black.,

.' / ' ': -. .

14

6.

323 Ass.

EZEKIKL. .

14

17.

476 Virgin.

1

10

332 Oi.

14

19

58 Branch. :

1

28

^. 35t Rainbow.

506

INDEX.

EZEKIEL continued.

EZEKIEI> continued.

Ch. Ver.

Face Under

CluVer.

Page Under

2 6-.

.370 Scorpion.

32 2-

- 480 Watchman.

3 17-

.480 Watchman.

32 4-.

., 109 Birds.

4 3-.

..266 Iron.

32 2_

..45 Crocodile.

4 4-,

.455 Time.

32 7~

.,121 Darkness.

4 16-.

.420 Staff.

32 21-

15 Abyss.

5 1 -,

. 352 Razor.

34 31-

,. 394 Sheep.

6 2-

. 313 Mountain.

37 11-

,,357 Resurrection.

T 23-.

. 39 Chain.

37 le-

^365 Rod.

8 12-.

. 121 Darkness.

ss 2-

,.215 Gog.

8 17-

_ 62 Branch.

38 22-

..179 Fire.

9 2-.

389 Seven.

38 22-

-224 Hail.

11 3~

~ 87 Caldron.

39 6-

-179 Fire.

u ?.-.

,. 87 Ditto.

39 8-

- 74 Burn.

11 11-

.. 87 Ditto.

39 11-

-215 Gog.

13 11 -

-224 Hail.

39 17-

- 366 Blood.

16 4-.

~ 309 Mother.

39 17-

- 49 Birds.

16 11-

- 90 Chain.

39 17-

- 45 Sacrifice.

16 26-

~495 Woman.

40 passim 353 Read.

17 1-

-.153 Eagle.

47 11-

- 303 Marsh.

17 4-

,, 59 Branch.

18 2-

-.221 Grapes.

DANIEL.

19 2-

~ 287 Lion.

1 7-

-176 Fire.

19 10-

~ 341 Pomegranate.

2 33-

265 Iron.

20 37-

-364 Rod.

2 34-

- 275 Stones.

20 46..

-.186 Forest.

2 34-

- 425 Kingdom.

21 10-

-364 Rod.

2 35-

311 Mountain.

21 12-

-447 Thigh.

2 38-

-220 Gold.

21 21..

- 25 Arrow.

2 39-

64 Brass.

21 21 -

-309 Mother.

4 13-

- 342 Pasture.

21 22-

26 Arrow.

7 2.-

-484 Wind.

21 27-

-449 Three.

7 3-

- 40 Beast.

22 17-

194 Furnace.

7 4-

-289 Lion.

22 18-

64 Brass.

7 5-

- 38 Bear.

22 18-

75 Burn.

75.

-. 182 Flesh.

23 44-

- 483 Whore.

7 6.

,- 282 Leopard.

24 3-

- 88 Caldron.

7 7.

-.265 Iron.

26 8-

- 399 Shield.

7 7.

-.446 Ten.

26 13-

-413 Song.

8 4.

-. 42 Beast.

26 16..

.- 363 Robe.

8 5.

-.248 He-goat.

27 3-

- 268 Island.

8 9.

-. 252 Horn.

27 30.

~, 26. Ashes.

8 10.

-.259 Star.

28 12.

_ 375 Sealing.

8 10.

-.422 Host of heaven

28 13.
28 14.

.- 337 Paradise.
~, 97 Cherubim.

9 27.
10 13.

-.492 Wings.
-. 343 Prince.

29 3.

^.112 Crocodile. ~-

10 20.

-.343 Ditto.

29 4.

-. 181 Fishes.

10 21.

~ 343 Ditto.

29 7.

-, 352 Reed.

12 13.

-.356 Rest.

29 21.

-,253 Horn.

31 3.

88 Cedar.

HOSBA.

31 .8.

~. 194 Garden.

1 10.

370 Sand.

INDEX.

507

HOSEA continued.

JOEL continued-

Ch.

Ver.

Page Under

CluVer.

Page Under

2

15.

141 Door.

3

18

~. 189 Fountain.

2

15.

~471 Valley.

3

18

-.362 River.

2

15.

~ 414 Song.

3

1.

,.495 Woman.

AMOS.

3

4.

.274 King.

2

2

~. 126 Death.

'A

4

4.
1.

~446 Seraphim.
~ 82 Carcase.

2
2

2
9

466 Trumpet.
.. 327 Oak.

4

12.

~ 420 Staff.

2

11

-.486 Wine.

4

13 .

328 Oak.

3

6

465 Trumpet.

6

3.

~ 346 Rain.

3

8

288 Lion.

6

4.

.133 Dew.

3

14

256 Horn.

6

5.

.272 Kill.

4

13

.. 121 Darkness.

6
6

5.
5.

.286 Light.
434 Sword.

4
5

13
10

.. 160 Earthquake.
-.204 Gates.

6

5.

429 Sun.

5

17

-. 476 Vineyard.

6

11.

.240 Harvest.

5

23

413 Song.

6

16.

. 355 Rend.

5

26

..421 Star!

7

5.

. 147 Drunk.

6

13

-.250 Horn.

7

16.

. 57 Bow.

7

16

..347 Rain.

8

1.

. 154 Eagle.

8

8

160 Earthquake.

8

6.

.. 79 Cafe

9

11

.. 436 Tabernacle.

8

9.

~ 32 Ass.

9

11

444 Temple.

9

14.

.336 Paps.

10

12.

. 346 Ram.

MICAH.

11

1.

. 413 Son.

1

8

385 Serpent.

11

11.

. 142 Dove.

3

6

-. 325 Night.

12

1.

.171 Feed.

4

1

..313 Mountain.

13

2.

. 79 Kiss.

4

12

..333 Ox.

13

2.

. 275 Calf.

4

13

~- 65 Brass.

13

8.

. 39 Bear.

5

7

.. 137 Dew.

13

15.

. 190 Fountain.

7

1

221 Grapes.

14

2.

. 79 Calf.

14

5-.

133 Dew.

NAHTJM.

2

3

.. 399 Shield.

JOEL.

2

7

65 Breast.

1

15-

.125 Day.

2

11

289 Lion.

2

1.

.467 Trumpet.

3

4

483 Whore.

2

2.

. 121 Darkness.

3

8

.. 309 Mother.

2

6.

. 47 Black.

3

10

.. 353 Reed.

2

10-

. 161 Earthquake.

3

15

291 Locust.

2

11.

.125 Day.

3

18

.. 395 Dust.

2

13.

. 354 Rend.

3

18

149 Shepherd.

2
3

23.
2.

. 97 City.
.473 Valley.

HABAKKUK.

3

4.

. 165 Eclipse.

1

6

46 Bitter.

3

13-

-.241 Harvest.

2

16

118 Cup.

3

13-

.. 401 Sickle.

3

4

254 Horn.

3

16-

288 Lion.

3

5

.. 176 Fire.

3

16.

. 157 Earthquake

3

9

.. 57 Bow.

508

INDEX

HABAKKTTK continued.

Ch. Ver.-
3 11.
3 17.

2
2

1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6

ge Under
Arrow...
.331 Olive-tree.

ZEPHANIAH.

2 11^. 267 Island.

3 1 ^. ,82- Carcase.
3 19 _ 173 .Feet.

e;

6

2 6.

8.

8

18

2

5

1

3

8

8

3

7

7

10

10

14

1

2

2

5

HAGOAI.

. 158 Earthquake.
.453 Thunder.

Heaven and
Earth.

ZKCHABIAH. .. '.
~. 105 Colour.
~. 317 rMyrtle.
~. 252 Horn. :
~~> 304 Measure.
.478. Wall.

. 201 1 Garments.
. 61 Branch.
.429 Sun.
.-.331 Olive-tree.
. 311 Mountain.
.467vTarumpet i ,

. 167jEyes :

"""fSeven...

6 12.

8 12.

9 9.
3 14,
9 16.

10
10
10

10 11,

11 2,

11 10.

12 2.
12 6.

12 11.

13 1.
13 I,

.. ,-64 Brass. .
. 48 Black.
. I05i Colour.
.343 Prince.

1

3.

3.

..138. Dew..,,

. 31, Ass.- ....
.286 /Lightning.
.425: Stones.

215 Stoat...

.. 360 River.
~:T88:Cedar.
^326iOak.. .,

iToich. .

188 Fountain.

ZKCHAEIAH continued.

Ch.Ver.

Page Under.

13 4..

.. 200 Garments.

13 6 ..

..:233 Hand...

14 6~

...325 Night.

14 16...

^,264 Incense. '

14 17-

..347 Rain.

MALACHL ....

1 2-

~297 Love.

1 11.

263 Incense.

2 12.

^480 Watchman.

3 2.

-^ 75 Burn. ,

3 14.

^..47 Black.

3 16 .

~ 56 Book.

4 2.

^429 Sun. .

MATTHEW. .

21 o
1O iM

~ 33 Babylon. -

3 10.

~ 28 Ax. ...

3 16.

^.144 Dove. ..

5 5.

~ 155 Earth..

6 22.

_ 167 Eyes.. , .

7 6.

-.418 Sow. .

7 15.

~. 201 .Garments.

8 12.

_ 121 Teeth..

8 12.

^, 441 -Darkness.

8 20.

_ 192 .Fox.

9 36.

241 Harvest.

10 9.

^..211 Girdle.,

10 14.

148Diist..

10 16.

^.141 Dove..

10 34i

^i:434 Sword. :

11 7.

_ 352 v Reed.

11 19.

394Sheep..

12 43.

^. 131 Desart.

13 6.

_ 244 Heat.

13 39.

^,241 Harvest.

33 42,

^t. 194? Furnace:

13 45.

^,.208 'Gein^,

15 26.

>.,140Dog.^.

16. .1,

^.427 Stork..

16 18

^.205 'Gates.

16 19.

:45 Bind.

16 19

~~ 269 Key...

19 28

^452 Throne.

20 15

^167 Eyes. ..

20 22

117 :Cup..,.

23 27
24 28

^.379 Sepulchre.
^ 86 Carcase.

24 30

^,245 Heaven.

24 8

_461 TravaUing.

INDEX.

509

.MAm
Ch. Ver.

PHKW continuea.
Page Under

. JO

Ch. Ver.

HN continuea.
. Page Under

25 1-

-. 80 Candlestick.

13 21-

. 345 Prophecy.

25 33-.

_ 215 Goat;

15 2-

-..64 Branch.

26 29-.

- 275 .Kingdom.

16 21-

,- 461 Travailing.

26 52-

433 Sword.

21 15-

^.171 Feed.

26 67-

~ 418 Spitting.

27 24-

~ 230 Hand.

.ACTS.

27 28-.

^ 363 Robe.

1 8-

~ 345 Prophecy.

27 28-

~.200 Garments.

2 2-

-.485 Wind.

2 37-

_ 435 Sword.

MARK.

7 .55-

,-. 342 Posture.

9 44-

- 177 Fire.

8 23-

_. 46 Bitter.

9 49-

- 178 Ditto.

9 15-

186 Forehead.

9 50-

- 369 Salt.

9 15-

-. 476 Vessel.

14 72-

_ 475 Veil.

10 4-

~.264 Incense.

14 11-

-. 168 Face.

LUKE.

lS 16-

-. 436 Tabernacle.

1 10-

-. 405 Silence.

22 23.

~. 148 Dust.

1 32-

-. 320 Name.

29 3-

~. 380 Sepulchre.

1 48-

-,378 See.

28 20-

~. 90 Chain.

1 69-

-. 255 Horn.

1 78-

- 429 Sun;

ROMANS.

3 9-

- 29 Ax.

1 16-

~. 24 Arm.

8 31-

-. 15 Air.

6 7-

~. 355 Rend.

10 19-

381 Serpent.

7 8-

~. 126 Death.

11 44-

~ 379 Sepulchre.

8 22.

~. 462 Travailing.

11 52.i.

-.271. Key.

8 36.

~. 394 Shape.

13 24-

-.205. Gates.

9 3-

~. 56 Book.

13 28-

-.441 Teeth.

9 4-

.i. 478 Wall. .

13 32-

- 192 Fox.

9 22-

~. 476 Vessel.

16 19-

- 76 Byss.

10 7.

~. 14 Abyss.

18 32-

418 Spitting.

11 5-

~. 357 -Resurrection.

23 43-

-.336 Paradise.

12 9.

-. 297 Love.

24 29-

- 99 Clothed.

13 4.

~ 433 Sword.

24 32-

-.271 Key.

13 12.

^. 324 Night.

16 16 .

-. 276 Kiss.

JOHN.

16 19.

~.141 Dove

1 4-

-.429 Sun.

1 7-

345 Prophecy.

.1

COMNTHIANS..

1 16-

~ 243 Head.

3 2.

-.305 Milk.

1 51-

-.246 Heaven.

3 6.

-. 196 Garden.

3 5-.

-.331 Hand.

3 12-

_ 219 Gold.

6 27-

-376 Sealing.

3 12.

~. 222 Grass.

6 51-

_ 298 Manna.

4 3-

-. 125 Day.

8 12-

~ 286 Light.

5 12-

.-. 494 Within.

8 12-

~ 431 Sun.

9 9.

^. 77.. Calf.

8 12-

-.207 Gem.

9 9-

.- 392 Ox.

9 4-

~ 326 Night.

10 21.

~. 115 Cup. .

10 9-

~ 141 Door.

11 10.

-.474 Veil.

11 12-

_ 408 Sleep.

11 14.

_~ 229 Hair.

12 13-

.334Pahn.

13 12.

_~ 214 Glass.

510;

INDEX.

1 CORINTHIANS continued.

Ch.

Ver.

Page Under

13

12

169 Face. -

16

9

140 Door.-

2 CORINTHIANS.

2

17

486 Wine.

3

6

272 Kill.

3

14

475 Veil.

4

7

475 Vessel.

5
5

1
1

445 Temple.
436 Tabernacle.

10

13

354 Read.

11

2

476 Virgin.

12

4

336 Paradise.

12

8

449 Three.

GALATIANS.

2

3

339 Pillar.

2

9

233 Hand.

2

14

174 Feet. .

3

27

199 Garments.

4
4

19
26

461 Travailing.
308 Mother.

5

22

197 Garden.

6

16

33 Babvlon.

6

17

184 Forehead.

EPHESIANS.

1

13

376 Sealing.

1

23

242 Head.

2

2

18 Air.

3

17

151 Dwell.

4

14

485 Wind.

4

22

200 Garments.

5

8

325 Night.

5

13

431 Sun. .

5

11

122 -Darkness.

5

26

231 Hand.

5

32

302 Marriage.

6

12

382 Serpent.

6

14

67 Breastplate.

6

15

174 Feet.

6

17

434 Sword.

-PHILIPPIANS.

3

2

139 Dog.

4

3

54 Book.

4

17

197 Garden.

CotOSSIANS.

1

18

179 Firstborn.

COLOSSIANS continued.

Ch. Ver.

Page Under .

3

. 4

89 Chain.

3

16

151 Dwell.

4

5

494 Within.

4

6

369 Salt. ...

1

THESSALONIANS.

4

12

.494 Within.

5

7

-.324 Night. .

2

THESSALONIANS.

2

3

299 Man of- Sin.

1 TIMOTHY.

4

10

490 Wings.

6

10

366 Root.

2 TIMOTHY..

2

20

476 Vessel.

4

17

290 Lion.

TlTOS.

3

6

36 Balance.

. HEBREWS.

1

2

170 Face.

1

2

179 Firstborn.

3

8

458 Time.

4

4

388 Seven.

4

12

434 Sword.

4

12

126 Death.

6

16

390 Seven.

9

13

252 Hand.

9

13

26 Ashes.

10

25

126 Day.

11

37

201 Garments.

12

1

101 Cloud.

12

12

277 Knee.,

12

15

46 Bitter.

12
13

26
10

158 Earthquake.
20 Altar.

13
13

13
16

445 Temple.
21 Altar..

. JAMES.

1

23

214 Glass. ...

- 5

5

367 Sacrifice.

5

14

330 Oil.

1 PETER.

1

24

222 Grass.

INDEX.

511

PBTBBr continued.

Ch. Ver.

Page Under

2 o
& ++t

. 305 Milk.

2 13~

.273 King.

3 7~

,.475 Vessel.

5 8 .

291 Lion.

6 13 _

35 Babylon.

2 PETER.

2 17-

102 Cloud.

2OO
tt **.

418 Sow.

"3 13-

,/ Heaven and
~ 248 i Earth.

1 JOHN.

1 5..

., 432 Sun.

2 27-

.. 328 Oil.

3 JOHN.

13-

^352 Reed.

JUDE.

9-

~ 343 Prince.

13..

~423 Star.

REVELATION.

1 4.

391 Seven.

1 5.

^. 179 Firstborn.

1 5.

^, 52 Blood.

1 12.

^ 377 See.

1 15.

_ 65 Brass.

1 16.

~. 316 Sword.

1 16.

435 Mouth.

1 18.

_ 270 Key.

1 20.

80 Star.

1 20.

^, 423 Candlestick.

2 1.

.-. .81 Ditto.

2 5.

^. 81 Ditto.

2 7.

336 Paradise.

2 10.

445 Ten.

2 11.

127 Death.,

2 17.

~~ 425 Manna.

2 17.

298 Stones.

2 28.

423 Star.

3 4

,198 Garments.

3 5

~~ 54 Book.

3 18

^,219 Gold.

4 J:
4 3

A-287 Trumpet
351. Rainbow.

4 4

220 Gold..

4 5

286 Thunder.

4 5

391 Seven.

4 5

~~ 453 Lightnings

REVELATION continued.

Ch. Ver. ,

Page Under

4 6 ,~,

372 Sea.

4 6 _

.214 Glass.

4 7.~

. 154 Eagle.

5 1_
5 5_

. 375 Sealing.
.290 Lion.

5 5_

.366 Root.

5 6 _

. 277 Lamb. ,

S 6_

.391 Seven.

6 2_

. 58 Bow.

6 .5_

. 36 Balance.

6 5_

. 48 Black.

6 8_

. 104 Colour.

6 11 _

. 363 Robe.

6 12 ~

. 48 Black.

6 12 _
6 13 ~

161 Earthquake.
.423 Star.

6 14^

.268 Island. -

6 14_

,315 Mountain.

7 1~

> 485 Wind.

7 4_

468 Twelve.

7 9-

,,334 Palm.

7 16 _

243 Heat.

7 17 ~

.,438 Tears. ..

8 1_

,,405 Silence.

8 2_

.,391 Seven.

8 3..

^20 Altar.

8 5..

453 Thunder.

8 7~

222 :Grass~

8 7~

_225 Hail.

8 9..

_.373 Sea.

8 10 _

_422 Star.

8 10_

_ 190 Fountain.

8 11..

_ 46 Bitter.

8 12-

-, 307 Moon.

8 15.

~ 178 Fire.

9 1.

-. 270 Key.

9 1.

15 Locust.

9 1.

_ 292 Abyss.

9 1.

^.423 Star.

9 2.

^. 19 Air.

9 4,

-. 223 Grass.

. 9 7.

. 220 Gold.

9 8.

^.229 Hair.

9 9.

^- .67 Breastplate.

9 9.

-~266 Iron.

9 10.

^_ 371 Scorpion.

9 11.

^.274 King,

9 11.

^ 23 Angel.

9 11.

^, 16 Abaddon.

9 13

^. 20 Altat

512

INDEX.

KEVBLATIOJ;
Ch.Ver. ; .Paee

r continued.
Under .

I

Ch.

IEVEI
Ver. -

9

15.

-.191

Four. -

15

8~

9

19.

-..316

Mouth.-'

16

5~

10

1.

-.351

Rainbow.

16

9..

10

1.

** lUo

Cloud.

16

12^

10

2.

-.373

Sea.

16

13-

10

9.

-..53

Book.

16

13..

11

1.

-.353

Reed.

16

15..

11

2.

462

Tread.

16

17-.

11

4.

-.469

:Two.

16

18-.

11

.4.

'331'

Olive-Tree.

16

19^

11

- sr

Candlestick.

16

20_

11

' 5 1

-316

Mouth.

17

1-.

11
11

6.
8.

-..345
-.166

Prophecy.
Egypt-

17
17

3..

4^

11

.8.

111

Crocodile.

17

5

11

19.

-225

HaiL <

17

5_

12

1.

-.308

Moon. ..

17

8-

12

3.

~386

Serpent.

17

9.,

12

3.

-.386

Ten\ .

17

15..

12

4.

-.424

Star. ...

17

18^

12
12

7.

7.

-.,23
-.543

Angel.
Prince.

18
18

6.
21^

12

14.

-.154

Eagle. .

18

22-

12

15.

-316

Mouth. -

18

22.

13

i.

-373

Sea. ....-:

19

7-v.

13

1.

-.152

Horn.- v

19

8.^

13

1.5.

-.111

Crocodile.

19

8~

13

2.

-.39

Leopard.

19

12

13

2.

-285

Bear.

19

16^

13

8.

- 54

Book.

20

1~

13

11.

-278

Lamb.

20

2~

13

16.

184

Forehead.

20

4>

14

2.

-239

Harp

20.

4_

14

4.

-477

Virgin.

20

8-

14

10.

118 Cup.

20

9-.

14

11 -

-411

Smoke.

20

12..

14

13.

-355

Rest.

21

1~

14

13.

-406

Sleep..

21

12.

14

14.

- 103

Cloud.

21

17.

14

14.

-220

Gold.

21

18.

14

14.

-402

Sickle.

21

18.

14

15.

-.241

Harvest. .

21

21.

14
14

18.

-.22
ii-178

Angel.
KM.

22

22

1.
2.

14

18 1

-221

Grapes. ;

22

4.

14

19..

-488

Winepress.

22

15'i

14

20.

-50

BlbodT

22

15.

15

2.

-214

Glass.

22

15.

15

2.

-239

Harp.

22

16.

15

6.

Girdle.

22

19.

REVELATION continued.

Under. .
~ 411 Smoke.
., .22 Angel..
J 442 Teeth.
-274 King.
.;<316. Mouth.
- 193 Frogs.
,. 319; Nakedness.

. 206t Lightnings.
.32 .Babylon.
.315 Mountain.'
. 484 Whore.
, 130 Desart.
.115 Cup.
. 32 Mother.
. 309 Babylon.
. 54 Book.
. 40 Beast.
. 482 Water.
.' 34 Babylon.
.118 Cup.
. 32 Babylon.
.239 /Harp.
.404 Silence.
.302 Marriage.
.199 Garments.
. 76 Byss.
.114 Crown.
.447 Thigh.
.270 Key.
. -15 Abyss.
. 29 Ax.
.462 Throne.
.215 GOB
.286
. 56 Book.
.373 Sea.
.478 Wall.
. 468 Twelve.
.209 Glass.
.214 Gem.
.338 Pearl.
.362 River.
.281 Leaves.
. 185 Forehead.
.494 Within.
.138 Dog.
.124 Darkness.

.366 Root

. 54 Book.

FINIS.

UNIVERSI

Y OF CHICAGO

24 878 742

!&.&

m